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THE     HOG; 

A  TREATISE    ON  THE 

BREEDS,    MANAGEMENT,    FEEDING,   AND    MEDICAL 
TREATMENT  OF  SWINE  ; 

WITH  DIRECTIONS  FOR 

SALTING  PORK  AND  CURING  BACON  AND  HAMS,' 

BY     WILLIAM    YOUATT,    V.    S., 

Author  of  "The  Horse,"  "Cattle,"  "Sheep,"  "The  Dog,"  &c., 

AND 

W.    C.   L.    MARTIN, 

Member   of   the   Royal   Zoological   Society. 

ILLUSTRATED    WITH  ENGRAVINGS,   DRAWN  FROM  LIFE  BT  WILLIAM  HARVEY,   ESQ. 

EDITED    BY    A;    STEVENS. 


NEW-YORK : 
ORANGE    JTJDD    &    COMPANY, 

No,  245    BROADWAY. 


Entered  according  to  Act  of  Congress,  in  the  year  1855,  by 

C.    M.  S  A  XT  ON, 

In  the  Clerk's  Office  of  the  District  Court  of  the  United  States,  in  and  ft* 
the  Southern  District  of  New  York. 


PREFACE. 


IN  undertaking  this  work,  the  authoi  was  influenced  by  an  anxious 
desire  to  extend  the  views  of  medical  science  generally,  and  of  hia 
own  profession  in  particular,  and  a  wish  to  draw  the  attention  of 
agriculturists  and  veterinary  surgeons  to  a  too  much  neglected  and 
undervalued  class  of  animals,  and  by  the  hope  of  materially  increas 
ing  the  amount  of  knowledge  already  possessed. 

It  has  been  his  task  to  collect  all  the  various  brief  and  cursory 
notices  which  have  been  accorded  to  swine  by  ancient  as  well  as 
modern  agricultural  and  medical  writers ;  to  select  those  which  were 
valuable  and  worthy  of  record ;  and  then,  by  weaving  them  into  the 
groundwork  of  his  own  ideas  and  experience,  to  bring  the  before 
scattered  rays  into  one  focus,  so  that  the  eye  of  science  may  be 
attracted  towards  this  hitherto  neglected  branch,  and,  from  con- 
templating, may  be  led  to  study  it ;  and  practical  men  may  be 
induced  to  aid,  by  their  experience,  in  elucidating  a  subject  which 
is  as  yet  so  little  understood. 

In  short,  he  has  endeavored  to  act  as  a  pioneer,  to  lead  the  way 
to,  and  break  up,  a  new  and  fertile  spot ;  one  that  will  amply  re- 
ward the  labors  of  those  whom  he  hopes  to  induce  by  his  example 
to  bestow  some  little  of  their  care  upon  it. 

Many  talented  and  valued  friends  have  kindly  assisted  him  by 
hints  and  information ;  to  them  he  tenders  his  sincere  thanks.  Should 
it  be  deemed  that  he  has  succeeded  in  throwing  some  portion  of 
light,  faint  though  it  may  be,  on  the  management  and  diseases  of 
animals  whose  value  is  becoming  more  and  more  acknowledged 
every  year,  he  will  consider  his  labors  amply  rewarded. 

WILLIAM  YOUA.TT. 


EDITOR'S  PREFACE 


THK  Publisher  having  committed  to  the  editor  the  task  of  combin- 
ing  in  one,  the  two  volumes  of  "  Youatt  on  the  Hog,"  and  "  Martin 
on  the  Hog,"  he  has  endeavored  to  so  unite  them,  as  to  offer  in  one 
the  full  substance  of  both.  These  two  works  are  the  best  in  our,  or 
any  language,  on  the  subject  of  the  Hog.  Youatt  is  eminent  and 
superior  in  his  historical,  descriptive,  and  veterinary  portions, 
and  Martin  in  his  Natural  History  of  Swine.  The  Editor  has  taken 
Youatt's  work  as  the  basis,  which  he  has  preserved  entire,  and  has 
incorporated  therewith  such  portions  of  Martin  as  are  not  in  Youatt, 
and  are  not  repetitions. 

The  volume  now  presented  is  superior  in  its  material  to  any  other 
on  the  subject  of  the  Hog  now  extant,  in  all  its  departments  of 
natural  history,  in  the  history  of  the  relations  of  the  animal  to  man. 
in  its  veterinary,  or  surgical  and  medical  treatment,  and  in  mo 
breeding,  feeding,  fattening,  and  general  economy  of  the  Hog. 

A.  STEVENS. 


CONTENTS. 


i. 

PAO» 
definition  of  the  Fir— The  order  Pachydermata— The  Peccary— The  Babi- 


-The  I'haco  choeres— The  Capibara— Various  animal*  have  been  called  by  the 
name  of  Hog,  ..........   It 

II. 

Derivation  of  the  terra  Hog— The  Hog  was  generally  esteemed  by  the  Romans— -Wor- 
shipped by  some  of  the  ancients— Swine's  flesh  prohibited  by  the  law  of  Moses — By 
that  of  Mohammed— Despised  by  the  Egyptians, 21 

m. 

The  early  history  of  Swine— Legendary  and  authentic  records  respecting  the  keeping  of 
them  in  England— Ancient  Welsh  laws  relative  to  Swine-— The  forests  of  England- 
Swineherds — Their  mode  of  managing  their  herds — Calabrian  Swineherds— Horn  used 
to  assemble  the  grunting  troop — The  Schweim-General — Herds  of  Swine  kept  in  France- 
Value  of  Pigs— Some  vindication  of  them— Anecdotes  proving  their  teachability— Saga- 
city of  a  Pig — Some  demonstrations  of  memory  in  one— Attachment  to  individuals- 
Swine  not  innately  filthy  animals— Are  possessed  of  more  docility  than  they  usually 
have  credit  for— Their  exquisite  sense  of  smell— Pigs  said  to  foretell  rain  and  wind,  .  M 

IT. 

The  Wild  Boar — Description  of  him — Characteristics — The  female  and  her  young — Hunting 
the  Wild  Boar— Homer's  description  of  a  Boar-hunt— Roman  festivals  and  games— The 
Wild  Boar  in  England  and  Scotland — In  France— In  Germany— Mode  of  hunting  the 
Boar  in  Germany— Wild  Boar  park  of  the  Emperor  of  Austria— Present  wild  breed  in 
Germany— In  Hungary— In  the  Styrian  Alps — In  Russia— In  Sweden — In  the  East- 
Habits  of  the  Wild  Hog  in  India— Wild  Hog  hunting  in  India— The  wild  breed  in  America 
—Fearful  conflict  with  a  wild  herd  in  Columbia— The  Wild  Boar  the  parent  stock  of  all 
domesticated  breeds — Resemblances  between— Alterations  produced  by  domestication 
—Resumption  of  old  habits  on  again  becoming  free  from  control  of  man,  .  .  46 

V. 

Bwine  in  America— In  large  towns— Original  breed— Improved  breed—Swine  in  Canada— 
In  Ohio— In  Mexico— Hebrides— In  Columbia— In  the  South-Sea  IsJands— Swine  in  ASIA 
—In  China  and  Japan— Ceylon— Hindostan— Turkey  and  Arabia— Swine  in  AFRICA— 
Guinea— New  Holland— Caffraria— Swine  in  EcRora— Malta— Italy— Germany— Hun- 
gary—Russia — Sweden — France — Swine  indigenous  to  the  CHANNEL  ISLANDS— In  Jersey 
—guernsey— Serk— Alderney— Isle  of  Man— Hebrides— Orkneys,  .  .  .58 

VI. 

SCOTLAND,  aboriginal  breed  of  Swine  in— Little  known  until  lately— Present  races— ENG- 
LAND, original  breed— Swine  in  Yorkshire—Lincolnshire— Leicestershire— Bedfordshire 
— Essex— Suffolk— Norfolk— Shropshire  —  Cheshire  —  Gloucestershire  —  Herefordshire — 
Wiltshire — Berkshire— Hampshire— Sussex— The  Chinese  breed— Swine  in  Ireland  .  74 


IV  CONTENTS. 

VII. 

Skeleton  of  the  Hog—  Skull  and  Snout—  Teeth—  Brain—  Apoplexy—  Inflammation  of  the 
Brain  —  Phrenitis  —  The  Spinal  Cord  —  Epilepsy—  Palsy  and  Paralysis  —  Tetanus—  Rabies— 
Nasal  Catarrh—  The  Larynx—  The  Pharynx—  The  Os  Hyoides—  Strangles  and  Quinsy 
—  The  Chest  —  Diseased  Valves  of  the  Heart  —  The  Bronchial  Tubes—  Inflammation  of 
the  Lungs  or  Rising  of  the  Lights—  Pleuro-Pneumonia—  Epidemics,  .  .  .101 

VUL 

Anatomy  of  the  Stomach—  Gullet  —  Intestines—  Duodenum—  Jejunum  —  Ileum—  Ccecum  — 
Colon  :  Diseases  to  which  these  parts  are  liable—Enteritis—  Colic—  Diarrhoea—  Garget 
of  the  Maw—  Anatomy  of  the  Liver  and  Spleen  :  Splenitis—  Rupture  of  the  Spleen—  Ab- 
sorption of  the  Spleen—  Peritoneum—  Worms—  The  bladder  and  its  diseases  —  Protrusion 
of  tho  Rectum,  ......  •  127 

IX. 

The  Skin  and  its  Diseases  —  Gangrenous  Erysipelas—  Lice—  Leprosy—  Mange—  Measles— 
Deaquamation  of  the  Skin,  .......  .130 

X. 

Operations—  'Bleeding—  Castration—  Catching  and  Holding—  Drenching—  Ringing,  .  114 

XI. 

Breeding  ;  Principles  of—  Choice  of  the  Boar  and  Sow—  Best  Breeds—  Age  at  which  the 
Sow  may  be  used  for  Breeding  —  Proper  age  for  the  boar  to  commence  at  —  Period  of 
Gestation—  Fruitfulness  of  Sows—  Treatment  of  them  during  Pregnancy—  Abortion—  . 
Parturition—  Caesarian  Operation  —  Monstrosities  —  Treatment  of  Sows  while  Nursing- 
Treatment  of  Young  while  bucking  —  Weaning  and  after-treatment—  Prolific  Powers  of 
Swine,  ...  ..  «  ....  .  .  .  .149 

,4;:.         I    j..  :  •  S.-:   •*;:"•  -'     i.t     '    •  -r&  ..  :  ".  -     .'.  •   ?„....:.•  ;•  :       rl;  ••?:•#£.     i'-i  •  .       ..-.::     ^-  '-- 

XH. 

On  Feeding  Swine—  Fat  Pigs—  Cattle  Shows—  Whey.  Milk,  and  Dairy  Refuse—  Befuse  and 
Grains  of  Breweries  and  Distilleries—  Residue  of  Starch  Manufactories  —  Vegetables  and 
Boots—  Fruits—  Grain—  Soiling  and  Pasturing  Swine—  Animal  Substances  as  Food  for 
them  —  General  directions  for  breeding  and  fattening,  .  ».  .  .,t  :  ••  .171 


On  the  Proper  Construction  of  Piggeries—  Ventilation  —  Description  of  Mr.  Henderson's  Cues 
—Cooking  Apparatus  —  Curious  Contrivance  for  Feeding  Pigs—  Description  of  the  Piggery 
at  Prince  Albert's  Home  Farm—  Description  of  a  Piggery  at  Lascoed—  Advantages  of 
Cleanliness—  Pig-keeping  in  Mexico,  ->.:«r.37..  ;,;.;.  .4  .,?;;,.  ,..  197 

XIV. 

Pigs,  Profit  of,  to  the  Butcher—  Sucking-pigs—  Pork-Butchers—  Pig-killing  at  Rome—  Pick- 
Ting  Pork—  Bacon  ;  Mode  of  curing  in  Hampshire—  Buckinghamshire—  Wiltshire—  York- 
shire— Westphalia  —  America  —  Brine  poisonous  to  Pigs  —  Quantity  of  Bacon,  Ham,  and 
Salted  Pork  Imported  during  the  last  Three  Years  —  Importation  of  Swine—  Pig's  Dung  as 
Manure,  ^^-V?  '•  ~»1'  ,  ^  '^  •  "'".••  T*J..':-'  •  W»^  •  •  •  •  2M 

XV. 

Mediates  uaed  in  combating  the  Maladies  .M  Swine,   .  .  .  .  .  .211 


THE   HOG, 


CHAPTER  I. 

Zoological  definition  of  the  Pig— The  order  Pachyderm  ata— The  Peccary— The  Babiroussa— Th« 
Pnaco-choeres— The  Capibara — Various  animals  have  been  called  Icy  the  name  of  Hog. 

THE  Hoo,  (Suidae  Sus  of  the  ancients  and  Linnaeus,)  according 
to  Cuvier,  belongs  to  "  the  class  MAMMAUA,  order  PACHYDERMATA, 
genus  SUIDAE  or  Sus,  having  on  each  foot  two  large  principal  toes 
shod  with  stout  hoofs,  and  two  lateral  toes  much  shorter  and  scarcely 
touching  the  earth;  the  incisors  variable  in  number,  the  lower  in- 
cisors all  levelled  forwards ;  the  canines  projected  from  the  mouth 
and  recurved  upwards ;  the  muzzle  terminated  by  a  truncated  snout 
fitted  for  turning  up  the  ground ;  the  stomach  but  little  divided ;  the 
body  square  and  thick,  and  more  or  less  covered  with  bristles  and 
hairs;  the  neck  strong  and  muscular;  the  legs  short  and  stout.'1 
(Cuvier's  Animal  Kingdom,  vol.  iii.) 

The  suidce  are  robust  and  massive  in  their  form,  Jow  in  the  limbs, 
flat-sided,  with  immense  muscular  development  in  the  neck  and 
fore-quarters.  The  head  is  wedge-shaped,  with  an  elongated  snout, 
terminating  in  a  round  or  oval  disc  of  cartilage,  called  in  common 
language  the  button ;  this  .disc  is  pierced  by  the  nostrils,  and  pos- 
sesses great  power  of  mobility,  being  supplied  by  several  strong 
muscles;  it  is,  moreover,  strengthened  and  supported  by  a  small 
extra  bone,  as  in  the  instance  of  the  mole  also,  and  is  used  with  great 
facility  as  an  instrument  for  ploughing  up  the  ground  in  quest  of 
roots  for  food.  The  lower  jaw  is  deep  and  strong,  and  the  symphy, 
sis  of  the  chin  is  completely  ossified,  and  not,  as  in  ruminants,  united 
by  suture.  The  mouth  is  wide,  opening  to  a  degree  almost  unpa- 
rallelled  among  terrestrial  mammalia.  The  jaws  are  armed  with 
foists,  which  grow  to  a  large  size,  pass  from  between  the  lips, 
and  are  weapons  of  tremendous  effect ;  the  tusks  of  the  lower  jaw 
advance  before  those  of  the  upper,  which  turn  obliquely  upwards 
and  outwards.  In  the  peccaries,  the  tusks  are  but  little  developed ; 


12  THE  HOG. 

in  the  male  babiroussa  those  of  the  upper  jaw  pierce  through  the  skin 
of  the  snout,  and  are  greatly  elongated.  The  eyes  are  small,  but  quick 
and  shrewd  in  expression ;  the  ears  are  moderate,  erect,  and  pointed. 
The  tongue  is  elongated  and  smooth.  The  tail  is  short,  slender,  and 
apparently  of  little  utility.  The  senses  of  smell,  sight,  and  taste  are 
in  high  perfection,  more  especially  that  of  smell,  and  the  olfactory 
nerves  are  large.  The  sense  of  hearing  is  acute.  In  their  diet  the 
suidce  are  omnivorous,  vegetable  and  animal  substances  being  equally 
acceptable ;  still  it  is  on  vegetable  aliment  that  they  chiefly  feed.  The 
skin  is  coarse,  covered  with  bristles,  and  destitute,  or  nearly  so,  of 
the  subcutaneous  muscular  expansion  common  to  most  other  animals, 
termed  the panniculus  carnosus,  and  so  highly  developed  in  the  hedge- 
hog. On  looking  at  the  skull  we  find  its  base  or  occipital  portion 
forming  a  right  angle  with  the  obliquely  rising  upper  surface,  and  a 
bold  transverse  ridge  is  formed  by  the  union  of  the  occipital  to  the 
parietal  bones,  which  latter  advance  above  the  frontal  bones,  and 
form  the  most  elevated  portion  of  the  skull.  The  nasal  bones  are 
prolonged  to  the  end  of  the  snout,  and  the  symphysis  of  the  lower 
jaw  is  consolidated.  In  proportion  to  the  elevation  of  the  occipital 
bone  are  the  length  and  strength  of  the  spinous  processes  of  the 
dorsal  vetebrae.  Those  of  the  anterior  dorsal  vertebrae  in  particu- 
lar are  remarkable  for  their  development,  and  indicate  the  volume 
of  the  muscles  for  supporting  and  moving  the  head.  These  are  the 
agents  by  which  the  dreadful  tusks  are  brought  into  play.  Rushing 
on  his  antagonist,  the  boar  strikes  obliquely  upwards,  right  and  left, 
with  irresistible  violence,  in  a  direction  harmonizing  with  that  of  the 
tusks,  and  in  the  mode  best  suited  for  the  exertion  of  the  animal's 
strength.  The  neck  is  short,  and  with  this  shortness  is  necessarily 
connected  that  of  the  limbs,  and  especially  of  the  interior  pair, 
otherwise  the  animal  would  not  without  difficulty  reach  the  ground 
with  its  snout.  Their  strength  must  be  in  proportion  to  the  weight 
to  be  sustained,  and  the  weight  depends  upon  the  size  of  the  head 
and  the  muscular  development  of  the  neck  and  shoulders. 

All  this  species  feed  on  plants,  and  especially  on  roots,  which  their 
snout  or  trunk  enables  them  to  grub  out  of  the  earth ;  they  will 
devour  animal  substances,  but  rarely  hunt  or  destroy  animals  for 
the  purpose  of  devouring  them.  They  are  thick  skinned;  said 
to  be  obtuse  in  most  of  their  faculties,  excepting  in  the  olfactory 
and  oral  senses ;  voracious,  bold  in  defending  themselves ;  and  de- 
light in  humid  and  shady  places. 

To  this  order  belong  the  elephant,  the  rhinoceros,  the  hippopo 
tamus,  &c.,  the  general  characteristics  of  all  of  which  are  very 
similar. 

From  among  the  cloven-footed  or  many-toed  animals  of  the 
pachydermatous  order  of  mammalia,  man  has  subjugated  and  re- 
claimed  only  two — v\&.t  the  hog  and  the  elephant. 


THE   PECCARY.  13 

The  domestic  hog  .s  the  descendant  of  a  race  long  since  subjugated ; 
yet  while  a  race  of  domesticated  swine  has  been  and  is  kept  under 
surveillance,  the  wild  type  whence  this  race  sprung  has  maintained 
itself  in  its  native  freedom,  the  fierce  denizen  of  the  forest,  and  one 
of  the  renowned  beasts  of  "  venerie."  Its  wild  source  still  exists,  and 
is  universally  recognized ;  it  roams  through  the  vast  wooded  tracts 
of  Europe  and  Asia.  The  wild  stock  of  the  hog  is  most  extensively 
spread  throughout  Europe  and  Asia,  and  has  been  known,  described, 
and  celebrated  from  the  earliest  ages,  alike  by  sacred  and  classical 
writers ;  it  is  the  sus  scrofa  of  Linnaeus,  the  sus  aper  of  Brisson. 

Under  the  generic  term  SUIDAE  or  Sus  many  zoologists  have  in- 
cluded, besides  the  true  hog  as  it  exists  in  a  wild  or  tame  state  in 
Europe,  Asia,  and  Africa,  the  peccary,  the  babiroussa,  the  phaco 
choere,  and  the  capibara ;  we  will,  therefore,  slightly  glance  at  each 
of  these  varieties  before  proceeding  to  the  actual  subject  of  the  pre- 
sent work. 

THE  PECCARY. — This  appears  to  be  the  nearest  approach  to  swine 
among  the  animals  indigenous  to  the  New  World ;  and  the  Collared 
Peccary  (Dicotyles  torquatus)  and  the  White-lipped  Peccary  (Dico- 
tyles  labiatus)  actually  do  at  first  sight  appear  to  bear  a  very  close 
resemblance  to  the  common  hog,  but  a  more  careful  examination 
soon  enables  us  to  detect  material  differences.  The  head  is  thicker 
and  shorter,  the  body  not  so  bulky,  the  legs  shorter,  the  hoofs  longer, 
the  ears  shorter,  and  the  tail  is  supplied  by  a  slight,  and,  at  a  cursors- 
glance,  almost  imperceptible  protuberance.  But  the  great  differ 
ence  arises  from  a  small  gland  on  the  back,  which,  although  partially 
concealed  by  the  hair,  is  nevertheless  evident,  and  hence  it  is  thai 
the  term  Dicotyles,  which  signifies  a  double  navel,  has  been  given  to 
this  species.  This  gland  secretes  a  fluid  which  is  emitted  in  great 
abundance  whenever  the  animal  is  irritated,  and  gives  out  a  very 
strong  odor,  pronounced  as  fetid  and  disagreeable  by  some  authors, 
and  by  others  compared  with  musk. 

Cuvier  remarks  that  the  external  toe  on  the  hind  feet  is  wanting 
in  the  peccary.  The  body  is  of  a  grayish  hue,  and  thickly  covered 
with  strong  coarse  bristles,  stiff  enough  to  penetrate  a  tolerably  firm 
substance,  and  shaded  black  and  white.  These  are  longest  on  the 
back,  where  some  will  be  found  measuring  four  or  five  inches ;  they 
become  gradually  shorter  and  shorter  on  the  sides,  and  disappear 
altogether  on  the  belly,  which  is  nearly  bare.  Or  the  head  is  a 
large  tuft  of  black  bristles.  The  eyes  and  snout  are  small,  the  ears 
erect. 

This  animal  is  found  in  vast  numbers  in  Paraguay  and  Guiana, 
and  has  been  termed  by  some  writers  the  Mexican  hog.  It  has 
nearly  tne  same  habits  and  tastes  as  the  common  hog ;  feeds  on 
seeds  and  roots;  digs  with  its  snout;  expresses  its  emotions  by- 
grunts  ;  is  fierce  in  defence  of  its  young ;  very  prolific ;  and  the 


14  THE   HOG. 

flesh  is  similar  tc  ordinary  pork,  but  harder,  less  sweet  and  juicy 
and  not  so  fat. 

The  peccary  may  be  tamed  if  taken  when  young,  and  will  attach 
itself  to  those  who  are  kind  to  it,  and  to  dogs  and  other  animals ;  ia 
fond  of  being  caressed  and  scratched,  and  will  answer  to  its  keeper's 
voice. 

The  European  hog,  when  transplanted  to  the  wilds  of  America, 
will  herd  with  the  peccaries,  but  is  never  known  to  breed  with  them ; 
the  two  races,  although  resembling  each  other  in  certain  points,  are,- 
and  remain  distinct.  The  hog  is  the  larger,  stronger,  and  more  use- 
ful animal,  and  will  thrive  in  almost  any  part  of  the  world:  the 
peccary  is  smaller,  weaker,  and  cannot  be  made  to  live  in  a  foreign 
climate  without  very  great  care  and  attention. 

The  BABIBOUSSA,  (sus  baby-roussa,)  or  Hog-deer,  or,  as  it  has  been 
termed  by  some  foreign  authors,  the  Indian  hog,  is  chiefly  found  in 
the  Moluccas,  Sumatra,  Java,  and  other  islands  of  the  Indian  Archi- 
pelago. 

This  animal  stands  higher  than  the  common  hog ;  its  legs  are 
long  and  slender ;  its  skin  thin  and  scantily  furnished  with  short 
woolly  hair  of  a  reddish  brown  on  the  back,  and  lighter  and  more 
inclined  to  fawn-color  on  the  belly.  It  is  chiefly  remarkable  for 
the  strange  position  of  its  upper  tusks,  which  come  through  the  skin 
of  the  muzzle  and  curve  backwards  almost  like  horns,  until  they 
nearly  or  quite  touch  the  skin  again;  they  are  sometimes  as  much 
as  nine  inches  in  length  and  five  in  circumference.  Pliny  (b.  8,  chap, 
lii.)  evidently  alludes  to  this  animal  when  he  says  that  wild  boars 
are  found  in  India  which  have  two  horns  on  the  face,  similar  to  those 
of  a  heifer,  and  tusks  like  the  common  wild  boars. 

There  are  all  the  family  characteristics  of  the  hog  in  this  animal; 
the  heavy  awkward  gait,  thick  neck,  small  eyes,  head  terminated  by 
a  snout,  and  grunting  voice;  it  feeds,  too,  on  roots,  plants,  and 
leaves,  and  some  say  shell-fish ;  but  some  authors  assert  that  it 
does  not  grub  roots  out  of  the  ground  like  most  of  the  swinish  varie- 
ties. Sparrman  informs  us  that  the  natives  would  rather  attack  a 
lion  than  this  animal,  for  it  comes  rushing  on  a  man  swift  as  an 
arrow,  and,  throwing  him  down,  snaps  his  legs  in  two  and  rips  his 
belly  up  in  a  moment.  (Voyage,  vol  ii.) 

The  flesh  of  the  babiroussa  is  very  fine  eating,  and  the  Malays  melt 
down  the  fat  to  use  instead  of  butter  and  oil. 

Cuvier  has  given  an  account  of  a  pair  that  were  at  the  Menagerie 
at  Paris,  the  female  of  which  was  much  younger  and  more  active 
than  the  male;  he  was  old  and  fat,  and  only  ate,  drank,  and  slept. 
When  the  male  retired  to  rest,  the  female  would  cover  him  com- 
pletely over  with  straw  or  litter,  and  creep  in  after  him,  so  that 
both  were  concealed  from  sight.  The  specimen  at  the  Zoological 
Gardens  in  the  Regent's  Park  used  to  cover  himself  up  with  straw 
in  the  same  way. 


THE  HOG  TRIBE.  15 

THE  PHACO-CHOERES. — There  are  two  recognized  species  of  this 
rariety  of  the  hog  family,  the  one  found  in  Guinea  and  the  interior 
of  the  Cape,  and  spoken  of  by  various  writers  as  the  Wark-hog,  and 
the  other  first  seen  in  Kordofan  and  afterwards  in  several  parts  of 
Abyssinia,  and  referred  to  by  ^Elian  as  the  hog  with  four  horns. 
Of  the  habits  of  these  creatures  little  is  known,  save  that  they  are 
inhabitants  of  forests,  and  their  food  is  vegetable. 

They  are  remarkable  for  the  two  warts  or  fleshy  excrescences 
which  disfigure  the  face  on  either  side ;  the  eyes  are  small ;  a 
bristly  mane  of  a  pale  brown  color  rises  between  the  ears  and  ex- 
tends itself  along  the  back,  many  of  the  hairs  of  which  are  from 
eight  to  ten  inches  in  length ;  the  body  is  bare ;  the  tail  thin  and 
terminated  by  a  tuft  of  hair  ;  and  the  tusks  very  large  and  powerful. 

THE  CAPIBARA — is  an  animal  which  is  often  classed  by  modern  zoo- 
logists among  the  Cavies ;  it  also  resembles  a  two-year  old  hog  in  shape 
and  color,  but  its  head  is  longer,  its  eyes  larger,  and  its  nose  cleft 
like  the  lip  of  a  rabbit,  instead  of  being  round.  It  has  thick,  coarse 
whiskers,  a  narrow  mouth,  and  no  tusks.  The  front  hoofs  are  divid- 
ed into  four  parts,  and  the  back  ones  into  three,  and  these  divisions 
or  toes  are  connected  together  by  skin,  and  thus  in  a  manner  web- 
bed, and  adapted  for  swimming;  indeed  so  much  does  it  delight  in 
the  water  that  by  some  it  has  been  called  the  water-hog.  It  lives 
upon  fruit,  corn,  and  sugar-canes,  and  eats  all  the  fish  it  can  catch. 
These  animals  associate  in  herds  and  seldom  go  out  of  their  lair 
excepting  in  the  night  time,  or  quit  the  borders  of  some  lake  or 
river,  for  their  short  legs  and  strangely-formed  feet  prevent  them 
%>m  running  with  any  degree  of  speed,  so  their  only  safety  is  in  the 
water,  wherein  they  plunge  on  the  least  alarm* 

If  taken  young  this  animal  may  easily  be  tamed,  and  is  capable 
of  great  attachment.  We  are  informed  that  its  flesh  is  tender,  juicy, 
and  fat,  but  has  a  fishy  flavor;  the  head  is,  however,  said  to  be 
excellent. 

Cuvier  refuses  to  admit  this  last-mentioned  animal  among  the 
PAQHYDERMATA,  but  places  it  in  the  order  RODENTIA,  genus  Cavia. 

The  animal,  too,  so  well  known  to  us  by  the  name  of  Guinea-pig, 
or  among  the  French  as  the  Cochon  cTInde,  he  also  classes  among 
the  Rodentia.  (Cuvier's  Animal  Kingdom.) 

The  name  Hog  has  been  given  by  different  nations  to  various 
animals  which  have  no  affinity  whatever  with  the  actual  family  Sus: 
thus  the  Spaniards  call  the  tatous,  hogs  in  armor ;  the  Hollanders 
term  the  porcupine,  the  iron-hog;  the  porpoise  has  frequently  been 
designated  the  sea-hog ;  and  Aristotle  speaks  of  a  hog-ape,  which 
has  been  since  supposed  to  refer  to  one  of  the  baboon  tribe ;  while 
among  our  common  animals  we  have  the  hedge-hog.  This  has  led  to 
much  confusion  and  misapprehension  ;  but  the  genus  Suidae  or  Sus 
is  now  very  generally  allowed  to  apply  only  to  the  actual  swine  as 


16  THE  HOG. 

they  exist  in  a  wild  01  domesticated  state  throughout  the  greater 
part  of  the  known  world. 

Martin  says  : — That  the  wild  hog  is  the  source  of  our  ordinary 
domestic  race  cannot  be  disputed ;  and  as  little  can  we  doubt  its 
extreme  antiquity.  The  hog  has  survived  changes  which  have  swept 
multitudes  of  pachydermatous  animals  from  the  surface  of  our  earth. 
It  still  maintains  an  independent  existence  in  Europe,  and  presents  the 
same  characters,  both  physical  and  moral,  which  the  earliest  writers, 
whether  sacred  or  profane,  have  faithfully  delineated.  The  domestic 
stock  has  indeed  been  more  or  less  modified  by  long  culture,  but 
the  wild  species  remains  unaltered,  insomuch  that  the  fossil  relics  of 
its  primitive  ancestors  may  be  identified  by  comparison  with  the 
bones  of  their  descendants. 

The  fossil  relics  of  the  genus  sus  have  been  found  in  the  miocene 
and  also  in  the  pliocene  deposits  of  the  tertiary  system  of  Lyell. 
Kaup,  for  example,  has  described  fossil  bones  of  the  genus  sus  from 
the  miocene  Eppelsheim  sand,  in  which  they  were  associated  with 
those  of  the  mastodon  and  dinotherium ;  and  MM.  Croizet  and 
Jobert,  in  their  account  of  the  fossils  of  Auvergne,  describe  ana 
figure  the  fossil  bones  of  a  species  of  hog,  which,  as  was  satisfacto- 
rily proved,  must  have  lived  coexistent  with  and  on  the  same  locality 
as  extinct  elephants  and  mastodons.  According  to  these  geologists, 
the  facial  part  of  the  fossil  hog  discovered  by  them  is  relatively 
shorter  than  in  the  existing  species ;  hence,  under  the  supposition 
that  their  fossil  animal  might  have  been  distinct,  they  conferred  upon 
it  the  title  of  aper  (sus)  Avernensis.  How  far  this  distinctiveness 
is  real,  yet  remains  to  be  seen  ;  at  all  events,  Professor  Owen,  in 
his  valuable  work  on  British  fossil  mammalia,  places  the  sus  Aver- 
nensis, with  a  query,  as  one  of  the  synonyms  of  the  cochon  fossile  of 
Cuvier,  sus  scrofa  fossilis  of  Von  Meyer  {Palceologica,  p.  80,)  sus 
priscus  of  Goldfuss  (Nova  Acta  Acad.  Nat.  Car.,  t.  xi.,  pt.  2,  p.  482,) 
the  fossil  hog  of  Dr.  Buckland,  and  the  sus  scrofa,  Owen,  in  Report 
of  British  Association,  1843,  p.  228. 

With  reference  to  the  fossil  remains  of  the  hog.  Professor  Owen 
thus  writes  : — "  When  Cuvier  communicated  his  memoir  on  the  fossil 
bones  of  the  hog  to  the  French  Academy,  in  1809,  he  had  met  with 
no  specimens  from  formations  less  recent  than  the  mosses,  or  turba- 
ries and  peat-bogs,  and  knew  not  that  they  had  been  found  in  the 
drift  associated  with  the  bones  of  elephants.  He  repeats  this  obser- 
vation in  the  edition  of  the  Ossemens  Fossiles,  in  1822 ;  but  in  the 
additions  to  the  last  volume,  puolished  in  1825,  Cuvier  cites  the  dis- 
covery by  M.  Bourdet  de  la  Nievre  of  a  fossil  jaw  of  a  sus,  on  the 
east  bank  of  the  lake  of  Neufchatel,  and  a  fragment  of  the  uppei 
jaw  from  the  cavern  at  Sundwick,  in  Westphalia,  described  by  Pro- 
fessor Goldfuss. 

"Dr.  Buckland  include*  the  molar  teeth  and  a  large  tusk  of  » 


THE  HOG  TRIBE.  17 

boar  found  in  the  cave  of  Htitton,  in  the  Mendip  hills,  with  the  true 
fossils  of  that  receptacle,  such  as  the  remains  of  the  mammoth,  Spe« 
Isean  bear,  &c.  With  respect  to  cave-bones,  however,  it  is  sometimes 
difficult  to  produce  conviction  as  to  the  contemporaneity  of  extinct 
and  recent  species." 

This  observation  applies  merely  to  cave-bones,  and  not  to  such  as 
are  imbedded  in  deposits  with  other  remains. 

The  oldest  fossil  remains  of  the  hog,  from  British  strata,  which 
Professor  Owen  has  examined,  were  from  fissures  in  the  red  crag 
( probably  rniocene)  of  Newbourne,  near  Woodbridge,  Suffolk  : — 
"  They  were  associated  with  teeth  of  an  extinct  felis,  about  the  size 
of  a  leopard,  with  those  of  a  bear,  and  with  remains  of  a  large  cervus. 
These  mammalian  remains  were  found  with  the  ordinary  fossils  of 
the  red  crag ;  they  had  undergone  the  same  process  of  trituration, 
and  were  impregnated  with  the  same  coloring  matter,  as  the  associa- 
ted bones  and  teeth  of  fishes,  acknowledged  to  be  derived  from  the 
regular  strata  of  the  red  crag.  These  mammaliferous  beds  have 
been  proved  by  Mr.  Lyell  to  be  older  frhan  the  fluvio-marine,  or 
Norwich  crag,  in  which  remains  of  the  mastodon,  rhinoceros,  and 
horse  have  been  discovered ;  and  still  older  than  the  fresh-water 
pleistocene  deposits,  from  which  the  remains  of  the  mammoth,  rhino- 
ceros, &c.,  are  obtained  in  such  abundance."  To  this  the  Professor 
adds  : — "  I  have  met  with  some  satisfactory  instances  of  the  associa- 
tion of  fossil  remains  of  a  species  of  hog  with  those  of  the  mam- 
moth, in  the  newer  pliocene  fresh-water  formations  of  England." 

The  most  usual  situations  however,  in  which  the  fossilized  bones  of 
the  hog  are  met  with,  are  in  peat-bogs,  often  at  the  depth  of  many 
feet,  and  in  association  with  the  remains  of  the  wolf,  the  beaver,  the 
roebuck,  and  a  gigantic  red-deer ;  generally  they  underline  the  bed 
of  peat,  and  rest  on  shell-marl  or  alluvium.  Of  the  identity  of  these 
bones  with  those  of  the  ordinary  wild  hog,  all  doubt  has  been  remov- 
ed by  the  most  rigorous  comparisons ;  nevertheless,  we  do  not  assert 
that  no  other  species  of  sus  may  not  have  anciently  existed,  which, 
like  the  mammoth  and  the  mastodon,  has  become  extinct ;  we  mean 
only  to  say  that  the  bones  of  the  sus  scrofa  are  among  the  fossil 
remains  of  our  island  and  the  continent  of  Europe.  Professor  Owen 
gives  an  excellent  figure  of  the  fossil  skull  of  a  wild  boar,  from  drift 
in  a  fissue  of  the  free-stone  quarries  in  the  Isle  of  Portland. 

Leaving  the  wild  hog,  let  us  direct  our  attention  more  immedi- 
ately to  that  breed  which,  time  immemorial,  has  been  reared  in  capti- 
vity, and  valued  for  the  sake  of  its  flesh,  prepared  in  different  ways 
as  food  for  man. 

"  One  of  the  most  singular  circumstances,"  says  Mr.  Wilson 
( Quarterly  Journal  of  Agriculture.)  "  in  the  domestic  history  of  this 
animal  is  the  immense  extent  of  its  distribution,  more  especially  in 
far  removed  and  insulated  spots  inhabited  by  semibarbarians,  where 


18  THE  HOG. 

the  wild  species  is  entirely  unknown.  For  example,  the  South  Sea 
Islands,  on  their  discovery  by  Europeans,  were  found  to  be  well 
stocked  with  a  small  black-legged  hog  ;  and  the  traditionary  belief 
of  the  people,  in  regard  to  the  original  introduction  of  these  animals, 
showed  that  they  were  supposed  to  be  as  anciently  descended  as  the 
people  themselves.  Yet  the  latter  had  no  knowledge  of  the  wild 
boar  or  any  other  animal  of  the  hog  kind,  from  which  the  domestic 
breed  might  have  been  supposed  to  be  derived.  The  hog  is  in  these 
islands  the  principal  quadruped,  and  is  more  carefully  cultivated 
than  any  other.  The  bread-fruit  tree,  either  in  the  natural  state  or 
formed  into  sour  paste,  is  its  favorite  food,  and  it  is  also  abundantly 
supplied  with  yams,  eddoes,  and  other  vegetables.  This  choice  of  a 
nutritive  and  abundant  diet,  according  to  Foster,  renders  the  flesh 
juicy  and  delicious;  and  the  fat,  though  rich,  is  not  less  delicate  to 
the  taste  than  the  finest  butter.  The  Otaheitans  and  other  South  Sea 
Islanders  were  in  the  habit  of  presenting  pigs  at  the  morais,  as  the 
most  savory  and  acceptable  offering  to  their  deities  which  they  had  i; 
in  their  power  to  bestow.  They  covered  the  sacred  pig  with  a  piece 
of  fine  cloth,  and  left  it  to  decay  near  the  hallowed  spot." 

The  pigs  of  these  islands  are  evidently  of  the  Cochin-Chinese  or 
Siamese  variety,  or  at  least  are  closely  allied  to  it,  and  were  no 
doubt  introduced  at  some  remote  period  by  the  colonists  of  Malay- 
an origin.  Cook  found  the  fowl,  as  well  as  the  hog,  at  Ulietea  and 
others  of  the  Society  Islands. 

It  has  been  doubted,  and  not  without  some  reason,  whether  the 
domestic  breed,  so  widely  spread,  is  in  every  country  attributable 
to  the  same  specific  origin.  Certain  it  is  that  the  various  domestic 
races  offer  marked  distinctive  peculiarities,  and  if  Mr.  Eyton  be 
correct,  differences  not  only  in  the  length  of  the  snout,  size  of  the 
ears,  and  symmetry  of  the  body,  but  also  in  the  number  of  the  verte- 
brae of  the  spinal  column.  In  the  Proceedings  of  the  Zoological 
Society  for  February  28th,  1837,  p.  23,  will  be  found  the  following 
observations  by  T.  C.  Eyton,  Esq.,  on  the  osteological  peculiarities 
to  which  we  have  alluded  : — "  Having  during  the  last  year  prepared 
the  skeleton  of  a  male  pig  of  the  pure  Chinese  breed,  brought  over 
by  Lord  Northampton,  1  was  surprised  to  find  that  a  very  great 
difference  existed  in  the  number  of  the  vertebrae  from  that  given  in 
the  Lefons  d?  Anatomic  Compares,  vol.  i.,  ed.  1835,  p.  182,  under  the 
head  either  of  Sanglier,  or  Cochon  Domestique.  A  short  time 
afterwards,  through  the  kindness  of  Sir  Rowland  Hill,  Bart.,  M.  P., 
I  prepared  the  skeleton  of  a  female  pig  from  Africa;  this  also  differ- 
ed, as  also  does  the  English  long-legged  sort,  as  it  is  commonly 
called. 

"The  following  table  will  show  the  differences  in  the  number  of 
the  vertebrae  in  each  skeleton  with  those  given  in  the  work  above 
quoted : — 


THE  HOG  TRIBE. 


19 


Vertebrae. 

English 
Male 

African 
Female. 

Chinese 
Hale. 

Legons  d'Anat. 
Comp.  Sanglier. 

Coch.Dom, 

Cervical, 

7 

7 

7 

7 

7 

Dorsal, 

15 

13 

15 

14 

14 

Lumbar, 

6 

6 

4 

5 

5 

Sacral, 
Caudal, 

5 
21 

5 
13 

4 
19 

4 
20 

4 
23 

Total, 

55 

44 

49 

50 

53 

"  It  is  possible  that  some  of  the  caudal  vertebrae  may  be  missing. 

"  The  Chinese  was  imported  into  this  country  for  the  purpose  of 
improving  our  native  sorts,  with  which  it  breeds  freely,  and  the  off- 
spring are  again  fruitful.  I,  this  winter,  saw  a  fine  litter  of  pigs  by 
Sir  Rowland  Hill's  African  6oar,  imported  with  the  female  I  describ- 
ed, the  mother  of  which  was  a  common  pig  •  time  will  show  whether 
they  will  be  again  fruitful. 

"  From  what  has  been  stated,  the  result  appears  to  me  to  be,  that 
either  of  the  above  three  pigs  must  be  considered  as  distinct  species, 
(and  which,  should  the  offspring  of  the  two  latter  again  produce 
young,  would  do  away  with  the  theory  of  Hunter,  that  the  young 
of  two  distinct  species  are  not  fruitful,)  or  we  cannot  consider  osteo- 
logical  character  a  criterion  of  species. 

"  I  have  been  induced  to  offer  the  above,  not  with  any  desire  of 
species-making,  but  of  adding  something  towards  the  number  of 
recorded  facts,  by  which  the  question  what  is  a  species,  must  be 
answered." 

Closely-allied  species  may  produce  offspring  fertile  inter  se,  although 
we  have  no  proof  positive  of  the  fact  in  the  case  in  question  ;  for 
when  domestication  produces  decided  differences  of  external  form, 
why  should  it  be  difficult  to  admit  of  the  extension  of  the  differ- 
ences  to  internal  parts  also,  and  especially  to  the  osseous  frame- 
work, on  which  the  form  and  symmetry  of  the  body  so  greatly  depend, 
or  why  the  law  of  variation  should  be  confined  in  its  influence  to 
one  part,  and  restricted  from  another.  If  it  be  admitted  that  the 
bones  may  be  somewhat  modified  in  length  or  stoutness,  we  see  not 
why  it  is  that  a  numerical  variation  in  the  bones  of  the  vertebral 
column  should  be  so  great  a  stumbling-block,  especially  seeing  that 
accidental  (and  perhaps  hereditary)  variations  are  far  from  being 
uncommon,  both  in  men  and  others  of  the  mammalia.  We  can 
easily  conceive  that  a  portion  of  the  osseous  system,  offering  in  al- 
most every  species  of  quadruped  some  variation  in  the  number  of 
its  constituent  parts,  should  be  also  the  most  likely  to  exhibit  such 
variation,  where  a  species  long  subjected  to  the  modifying  influence 
of  human  control,  has  branched  out  into  various  breeds  or 


20  THE  HOG. 

distinguished  by  decided  external  characteristics.  It  would  he  into- 
resting  and  important  to  know,  whether  the  numerical  ratio  of  the 
vertebrae,  as  given  in  the  foregoing  table,  is  constant  in  each  race ; 
and  also  whether  the  same  variation  does  not  obtain  among  others 
of  our  domestic  animals,  divided  into  numerous  breeds  or  races, 
as  the  dog,  the  sheep,  and  the  goat.  The  subject  has  not  been  treat- 
ed so  fully  and  extensively  as  it  deserves.  With  respect  to  the 
caudal  vertebrae,  indeed,  we  know  that  they  are  subject  to  great  nu- 
merical variation  in  most  of  our  domestic  animals  ;  witness  the  dog 
and  even  the  common  fowl,  of  which  latter,  a  tailless  breed,  perpe- 
tuated from  generation  to  generation,  is  far  from  being  uncommon. 
What  takes  place  in  one  part  of  the  spinal  column  may,  we  conceive, 
occur  also  in  another  and  more  important  portion,  to  some,  if  not  to 
so  great  an  extent ;  and  the  modification  may  moreover  be  trans- 
mitted from  one  generation  to  another. 

Examples  of  extraordinary  modification  in  other  parts  of  the 
skeleton,  transmissible  from  generation  to  generation,  may  be  here 
adduced  in  confirmation  of  our  views.  Aristotle  notices  a  race  of 
hogs  with  undivided  toes,  or  rather  with  hoofs  consolidated  together; 
and  Linnaeus  informs  us  that  a  similar  variety  of  the  hog  is  not  un- 
frequent  in  the  neighborhood  of  Upsal,  in  Sweden.  A  still  more 
extraordinary  case  of  modification  of  the  osseous  framework,  is  re- 
corded in  the  Proceedings  of  the  Zoological  Society  for  1833,  p.  16, 
where  will  be  found  the  notice  of  a  race  of  pigs  with  only  two  legs, 
the  hinder  extremities  being  entirely  wanting.  The  communication, 
with  drawings  of  two  individuals,  was  made  by  Colonel  Hallam, 
who  states  that  these  animals  were  observed  "  at  a  town  on  the 
coast  in  the  Tanjore  country,  in  the  year  1795 ;  they  were  from  a 
father  and  mother  of  a  similar  make,  and  the  pigs  bred  from  them 
were  the  same."  Thus,  then,  accidental  malformations,  either  by 
excess  or  deficiency,  may  become  transmissible,  and  so  perpetuate 
themselves. 

The  views  of  a  writer  ir  the  Penny  Cyclopcedia,  on  the  subject 
of  the  osteological  differences  observable  in  domestic  swine,  are 
much  in  accordance  with  our  own.  Undoubtedly,  he  remarks,  such 
records  as  those  given  by  Mr.  Eyton  are  valuable,  but  he  thinks 
that  the  inference  is  precipitate  ;  adding,  that  John  Hunter's  theories 
are  not  so  easily  done  away  with,  and  that  osteological  character 
will  continue  to  be  a  criterion  of  species,  notwithstanding  the  differ- 
ences set  forth.  He  says,  "  By  the  term  pig,  we  understand  the 
African  and  Chinese  varieties  of  the  hog.  Phacochoerus  cannot  bo 
meant,  or  it  would  be  staled.  The  pure  Chinese  breed  was  imported 
long  ago ;  and  for  years  its  stock,  bred  from  its  union  with  our  Eng- 
lish varieties,  has  been  known  in  our  farm-yards.  The  varieties 
bred  by  man  from  the  wild  hog,  are  spread  all  over  the  world  in  a 
domesticated  state ;  and  there  is  no  more  reason  to  doubt  that  the 


DERIVATION  OF  THE  TERM  HOG.  21 

result,  a  union  of  an  African  pig  with  a  Hampshire  hog,  would  be 
fruitful,  than  that  a  breed  composed  of  the  Berkshire,  Chinese,  and 
Neapolitan,  would  produce  a  good  litter.  Now,  if  we  take  little  or 
no  note  of  the  differences  in  the  caudal  vertebrae,  for  the  reason 
assigned  by  Mr.  Eyton  among  others,  what  remain  ?  Differences 
not  exceeding  two  in  the  dorsal  vertebras,  two  in  the  lumbar  verte- 
tebrae,  and  one  in  the  sacral  vertebras,  after  a  course  of  domestica- 
tion no  one  knows  how  long.  We  know  what  breeding  will  do  with 
dogs.  Take  a  greyhound  and  a  true  shepherd's  dog,  for  example, 
to  say  nothing  of  tailless  cats.  We  know  what  it  will  do  among 
poultry  :  it  will  take  away  the  drooping  feathers  of  the  cock's  tail  in 
those  bantams  known  to  fanciers  as  hen-cocks,  (Sir  J.  Sebright's 
breed,)  and  remove  the  tail-feathers  altogether  (rumpless  fowls) ; 
whilst  in  the  top-knotted  varieties  an  osteological  difference  is  pro- 
duced in  the  cranium.  Man  has  occasionally  an  additional  lumbar 
vertebrae.  This  accidental  excess  was  first  detected  in  the  negro,  and 
was  laid  hold  of  by  those  who  would  have  made  him  a  different  spe- 
cies ;  but  by-and-by  they  found  a  white  man  with  one  more  vertebra 
than  he  ought  to  have  had,  and  wisely  said  no  more  about  it. 

We  have,  then,  no  solid  or  sufficient  grounds  for  believing  that, 
widely  as  the  domestic  hog  is  spread,  and  remote  and  insulated  as 
are  some  of  the  localities  in  which  it  has  been  discovered  by  voy- 
agers, it  is  derived  from  different  sources ;  although,  as  we  have 
shown,  there  are  more  wild  species  of  the  restricted  genus  sus  thar. 
zoologists  formerly  suspected.  In  making  these  remarks,  we  may 
add,  that  as  to  every  general  rule  there  are  exceptions,  so  some  are 
to  be  found  here.  The  Papuan  hog,  caught  and  reared  in  captivity, 
is  distinct,  and  it  is  probable  that  the  domestic  hogs  of  Borneo, 
and  of  some  of  the  islands  adjacent,  are  derived  from  the  wild 
races  there  indigenous.  Be  this  as  it  may,  we  do  not  mean  to  insist 
upon  the  fact ;  our  subject  is  the  ordinary  hog,  as  we  see  it  in  its 
state  of  contented  domestication  in  Europe,  and  especially  our  own 
country. 


CHAPTER  II. 

Derivation  of  the  term  Hog— The  Hog  was  greatly  esteemed  by  the  Romans — Worshipped  by 
some  of  the  ancients — Swine's  flesh  prohibited  by  the  law  of  Moses— By  that  of  Mohammed 
—Despised  by  the  Egyptians. 

THE  term  Hog  is  stated  by  Carpenter,  to  be  derived  from  the 
Hebrew  word  *pyi,  by  which  this  animal  was  designated  among  the 
Hebrews,  a  word  derived  from  iyi,  to  encompass  or  surround,  sug- 
gested by  the  round  figure,  in  his  fat  and  most  natural  state.  Boch- 
art  and  Schultens,  however  are  more  inclined  to  refer  the  Hebrew 


22  THE  HOG. 

noun  to  the  Arabit  sense  of  the  verb,  viz.,  to  have  narrow  eyes,  and  there 
is  much  of  the  probability  in  their  supposition.  In  some  respects 
swine  seem  to  form  an  intermediate  link  between  the  whole-footed 
and  cloven-footed  animals,  and  the  others  to  occupy  the  same  ground 
between  the  cloven-footed  and  the  digitative ;  but  look  at  them  in 
what  point  of  view  we  may,  these  animals  present  various  peculiar 
characteristics,  and  are  of  vast  importance  as  affording  the  means 
of  sustenance  to  millions  of  human  beings  in  all  parts  of  the  world. 
The  hog  is  a  perfect  cosmopolite,  adapting  itself  to  almost  every  cli- 
mate ;  increasing  rapidly,  being  more  prolific  than  any  other  domes- 
tic animal,  with  the  exception  of  the  rabbit ;  easily  susceptible  of 
improvement,  and  quickly  attaining  to  maturity. 

As  far  back  as  the  records  of  history  enable  us  to  go,  the  hog  ap- 
pears to  have  been  known,  and  his  flesh  made  use  of  as  food.  1491 
years  before  Christ,  Moses  gave  those  laws  to  the  Israelites  which 
have  occasioned  so  much  discussion,  and  given  rise  to  the  many 
opinions  which  we  shall  presently  have  to  speak  of;  and  it  is  quite 
evident  that  had  not  pork  then  been  the  prevailing  food  of  th&t 
nation,  such  stringent  commandments  and  prohibitions  would  not 
have  been  necessary.  The  various  allusions  to  this  kind  of  meat, 
which  occur  again  and  again,  in  the  writings  of  the  old  Greek  au- 
thors, plainly  testify  the  esteem  in  which  it  was  held  among  this 
nation,  and  it  appears  that  the  Romans  actually  made  the  art  of 
breeding,  rearing,  and  fattening  pigs  a  study,  which  they  designated 
Proculatio.  Every  art  was  put  in  practice  to  impart  a  finer  and 
more  delicate  flavor  to  the  flesh ;  the  poor  animals  were  fed,  and 
crammed,  and  tortured  to  death  in  various  ways,  many  of  them  too 
horrible  to  be  described,  in  order  to  gratify  the  epicurism  and  glut- 
tony of  this  people.  Pliny  informs  us  that  they  fed  swine  on  dried 
figs,  and  drenched  them  to  repletion  with  honeyed  wine,  in  order  to 
produce  a  diseased  and  monstrous-sized  liver.  The  Porcus  Trojanus, 
so  called  in  allusion  to  the  Trojan  horse,  was  a  very  celebrated  dish, 
and  one  that  eventually  became  so  extravagantly  expensive  that  a 
sumptuary  law  was  passed  respecting  it.  This  dish  consisted  in  a 
whole  hog,  with  the  entrails  drawn  out,  and  the  inside  stuffed  with 
thrushes,  larks,  beccaficoes,  oysters,  nightingales,  and  delicacies  of 
every  kind,  and  the  whole  bathed  in  wine  and  rich  gravies.  Another 
great  dish  was  a  hog  served  whole,  the  one  side  roasted  and  the 
other  boiled. 

Varro  states  that  the  Gauls  produced  the  largest  and  finest  swine's 
flesh  that  was  brought  into  Italy ;  and,  according  to  Strabo,  in  the 
reign  of  Augustus,  they  supplied  Rome  and  nearly  all  Italy  with 
gammons,  hog-puddings,  hams,  and  sausages.  This  nation  and  the 
Spaniards  appear  to  have  kept  immense  droves  of  swine,  but  scarcely 
any  other  kind  of  live  stock  ;  and  various  authors  mention  swine  as 
forming  a  part  of  the  live  stock  of  most  Roman  farms. 


SWINE'S  FLESH   PKOHIBITED   IN  HOT   CLIMATES.         23 

.  In  fact  the  hog  was  held  in  very  high  esteem  among  the  early 
nations  of  Europe,  and  some  of  the  ancients  have  even  paid  it  di- 
vine honors.  In  the  island  of  Crete  it  was  regarded  as  sacred. 
This  animal  was  always  sacrificed  to  Geres  at  the  beginning  of  har- 
vest, and  to  Bacchus  at  the  commencement  of  the  vintage,  by  the 
Greeks ;  probably,  it  has  been  suggested,  "  because  this  animal  is 
equally  hostile  to  the  growing  corn  and  the  ripening  grape." 

The  Jews,  the  Egyptians,  and  the  followers  of  Mohammed,  alone 
appear  to  have  abstained  from  it.  To  the  former  nation  it  is  ex- 
pressly forbidden  by  the  laws  of  Moses.  Leviticus  xi.  7,  says: 
"And  the  swine,  though  he  divide  the  hoof,  and  be  cloven-footed, 
yet  he  cheweth  not  the  cud;  he  is  unclean  unto  you."  Mohammed 
probably  founded  his  prohibition  on  this  one,  or  was  induced,  by 
the  prejudices  of  his  followers,  to  make  it.  Numerous  theories 
have  been  advanced  by  different  authors  to  account  for  this  remark, 
able  prohibition  uttered  by  Moses  against  a  species  of  food  generally 
so  wholesome  and  nutritious  as  the  flesh  of  the  hog.  Maimonides 
says :  "  The  principal  reason  why  the  law  prohibited  the  swine  was, 
because  of  their  extreme  filthiness,  and  their  eating  so  many  impu 
rities ;  for  it  is  well  known  with  what  care  and  precision  the  law 
forbids  all  filthiness  and  dirt,  even  in  the  fields  and  in  the  camp,  not 
to  mention  in  the  cities.  Now,  had  swine  been  permitted,  the 
public  places,  and  streets,  and  houses,  would  have  been  made  nui- 
sances." 

Tacitus  states  that  the  Jews  abstained  from  it  in  consequence  of  a 
leprosy  by  which  they  had  formerly  severely  suffered,  and  to  which 
the  hog  is  very  subject.  And  several  other  writers  concur  in  this 
view,  stating  that  it  was  on  account  of  the  flesh  being  strong,  olea- 
ginous, difficult  of  digestion,  and  liable  to  produce  cutaneous  diseases, 
that  it  was  forbidden.  Michaelis  observes,  that  throughout  the  whole 
climate  under  which  Palestine  is  situated,  leprosy  is  an  endemic 
disease ;  and  the  Israelites  being  overrun  with  it  at  the  period  of 
their  quitting  Egypt,  Moses  found  it  necessary  to  enact  a  variety  of 
laws  respecting  it,  and  the  prohibiting  the  use  of  swine  was  one  of 
these.  Plutarch  (de  Iside)  affirms  that  those  who  drank  the  milk 
of  swine  became  blotchy  and  leprous. 

M.  Sonnini  states  that  in  Egypt,  Syria,  and  even  the  southern 
parts  of  Greece,  swine's  flesh,  although  white  and  delicate,  is  so 
flabby  and  surcharged  with  fat,  as  to  disagree  with  the  strongest 
stomachs,  and  this  will  account  for  its  prohibition  by  the  priests  and 
legislators  of  hot  climates,  such  an  abstinence  being  absolutely  ne- 
cessary to  health  beneath  the  burning  suns  of  Egypt  and  Arabia. 
"  The  Egyptians,"  he  says,  "  were  only  allowed  to  eat  pork  once  a 
year,  on  the  feast-day  of  the  moon,  and  then  they  sacrificed  a  num 
ber  of  these  animals  to  that  planet.  If  at  any  other  time  an  Egyp. 
;ian  even  touched  a  hog,  he  was  obliged  to  plunge  into  the  Nile, 


24  THE  HOG. 

clothes  and  all,  to  purify  himself,  The  swineherds  formed  an  iso. 
lated  race,  outcasts  from  society,  forbidden  to  enter  a  temple,  or 
intermarry  with  other  families."  Hence  it  probably  is,  that,  in  the 
beautiful  parable  of  th«  Prodigal  Son,  this  unhappy  young  man  is 
represented  as  being  reduced  to  the  office  of  a  swineherd,  that  being 
considered  as  the  lowest  possible  degradation. 

Others  are  of  opinion  that  this  and  many  other  of  the  prohibitions 
and  ordinances  established  by  Moses  were  solely  for  the  purpose  of 
distinguishing  the  Jews  from  other  nations,  and  making  them  what 
they  are  to  this  day  in  all  countries  and  under  all  climates.  "  a  pe- 
culiar people."  Others,  again,  assert  that  it  was  with  a  view  to 
correct  their  gross  and  gluttonous  habits  that  none  but  the  simplest 
and  mildest  kinds  of  animal  food  were  permitted  to  the  Jews.  And, 
lastly,  another  maintains  that  the  swine  was  thus  declared  an  abomi- 
nation in  the  sight  of  God,  as  a  lesson  to  the  Jews  to  abstain  from 
the  sensual  and  disgusting  habits  to  which  this  animal  is  given. 

The  aversion  to  swine  has  descended  to  the  Jews,  Egyptians,  and 
followers  of  Mohammed  of  modern  times.  The  Copts  rear  no 
pigs,  indeed  this  animal  is  scarcely  known  in  most  of  the  cities  of 
Lower  Egypt ;  and  the  poorest  Jew  would  sooner  starve  than  touch 
a  morsel  of  this  forbidden  food,  even  though  the  presumed  cause  of 
prohibition  has  long  ceased  to  exist,  and  he  is  removed  to  colder 
climes,  where  pork  is  both  wholesome  and  nutritious. 

By  the  precepts,  warnings,  and  threatenings  of  the  prophets,  we 
read  that,  so  great  was  the  detestation  excited  in  the  minds  of  the 
Jewish  nation  against  this  animal,  that  they  would  not  even  pollute 
their  lips  by  pronouncing  its  name,  but  always  alluded  to  it  as  "  that 
beast,"  i(  that  thing ;"  and  we  read  in  the  history  of  the  Maccabees, 
that  Eleazer,  a  principal  scribe,  being  compelled  by  Antiochus  Epi- 
phanes  to  open  his  mouth  and  receive  swine's  flesh,  spit  it  forth,  and 
went  of  his  accord  to  the  torment,  choosing  rather  to  suffer  death 
than  break  the  divine  law  and  offend  his  nation, 

And  yet  it  is  well  known  that  immense  numbers  of  swine  were 
reared  in  the  country  of  the  Jews,  probably  for  the  purpose  of  gain, 
and  in  order  to  supply  strangers  and  the  neighboring  idolaters ;  and 
it  has  been  supposed,  that  it  was  in  order  to  punish  this  violation  of 
the  Divine  commandments  that  our  Saviour  permitted  the  herd  of 
swine  te  be  affected  with  that  sudden  disorder  which  caused  them  to 
rush  headlong  into  the  lake  of  Genesareth. 

Martin  says — at  what  period  the  hog  was  reclaimed,  and  by  what 
nation,  we  cannot  tell.  As  far  back  as  the  records  of  history  go,  we 
find  notices  of  this  animal,  and  of  the  use  of  its  flesh  as  food.  By 
some  nations  it  was  held  in  abhorrence,  and  prohibited  as  food ; 
while  among  others  its  flesh  was  accounted  a  great  delicacy.  By 
the  Mosaic  law,  the  Jews  were  forbidden  to  use  the  flesh  of  the  swine 
as  food — it  was  unclean ;  and  the  followers  of  Mohammed,  borrow- 


GENERAL  OBSERVATIONS.  25 

ing  their  ritual  from  the  institutions  of  Moses,  hold  the  flesh  of  the 
hog  in  utter  abhorrence.  Paxton,  in  his  Illustrations  of  Scripture, 
vol.  i.,  says,  "  The  hog  was  justly  classed  by  the  Jews  among  the 
vilest  animals  in  the  scale  of  animated  nature ;  and  it  cannot  be 
doubted  that  his  keeper  generally  shared  in  the  contempt  and  abhor- 
rence which  he  had  excited.  The  prodigal  son  in  the  parable  had 
spent  his  all  in  riotous  living,  and  was  ready  to  perish  through  want, 
before  he  submitted  to  the  humiliating  employment  of  feeding 
swine." 

We  pass  over  Paxton's  description  of  the  hog  as  the  "  vilest  of 
animals,"  because  there  is  no  sense  in  the  expression,  and  its  pre- 
sumed meaning  is  unworthy  notice.  It  cannot,  however,  be  doubted, 
from  the  passage  in  Luke,  (xv.  15,)  and  from  others  well  known, 
that  herds  of  swine  were  kept  by  the  Jews,  perhaps  for  sale  and 
profit.  Dr.  J.  Kitto  says,  "  There  does  not  appear  to  be  any  reason 
in  the  law  of  Moses  why  the  hog  should  be  held  in  such  peculiar 
abomination.  There  seems  nothing  to  have  prevented  the  Jews,  if 
they  had  been  so  inclined,  to  rear  pigs  for  sale,  or  for  the  use  of  the 
lard.  In  the  Talmud  there  are  some  indications  that  this  was  actu- 
ally done ;  and  it  was  probably  for  such  purpose  that  the  herds  of 
swine,  mentioned  in  the  New  Testament,  were  kept,  although  it  is 
usual  to  consider  that  they  were  kept  by  the  foreign  settlers  in  the 
land.  Indeed  the  story  which  accounts  for  the  peculiar  aversion  of 
the  Hebrews  to  the  hog,  assumes  that  it  did  not  originate  until  about 
one  hundred  and  thirty  years  before  Christ,  and  that  previously 
some  Jews  were  in  the  habit  of  rearing  hogs  for  the  purposes  indi- 
cated. 

The  same  writer,  in  a  note  upon  Luke  viii.  32,  enters  at  greater 
length  into  this  subject.  "  We  have  already,"  he  says,  "  intimated 
our  belief  that  there  was  much  error  in  supposing  that  the  law  which 
declared  that  certain  kinds  of  animals  were  not  to  be  used  for  food, 
should  be  understood  as  prohibiting  them  from  rearing,  for  any  other 
purpose,  the  animals  interdicted  as  food.  There  was  certainly 
nothing  in  the  law  to  prevent  them  from  rearing  hogs,  more  than 
from  rearing  asses,  if  they  saw  fit  to  do  so.  It  appears,  in  fact,  that 
the  Jews  did  rear  pigs  for  sale  to  their  heathen  neighbors,  till  this 
was  forbidden  after  the  principle  of  refining  upon  the  law  had  been 
introduced.  This  prohibition  demonstrates  the  previous  existence 
of  the  practice ;  and  it  did  not  take  effect  till  about  seventy  years 
B.C.,  when  it  is  alleged  to  have  originated  in  a  circumstance  which 
occurred  between  Hyrcanus  and  Aristobulus,  the  sons  of  King 
Alexander  Janneus.  Aristobulus  was  besieging  Hyrcanus  in  Jeru- 
salem ;  but  not  wishing  to  interrupt  the  services  of  the  temple,  he 
permitted  an  arrangement  under  which  money  was  let  down  from 
the  temple  in  a  box,  in  return  for  which  the  lambs  required  for  the 
daily  sacrifices  were  sent  up.  It  at  last  occurred  to  a  mischievous 


26  THE   HOG. 

old  man,  *  who  understood  the  wisdom  of  the  Greeks,'  that  thero 
would  be  no  overcoming  the  adverse  party  while  they  employed 
themselves  in  the  service  of  God ;  and  therefore  one  morning  he 
put  a  hog  in  the  box,  instead  of  a  lamb.  When  half  way  up,  the 
pig  reared  himself  up,  and  happened  to  rest  his  fore  feet  upon  the 
temple  wall,  whereupon  continues  the  story,  Jerusalem  and  the  land 
of  Israel  quaked.  In  consequence  of  this,  two  orders  were  issued 
by  the  Council :  '  Cursed  /  be  he  that  breedeth  hogs  ;'  and  '  Cursed 
be  he  who  teacheth  his  son  the  learning  of  the  Greeks.'  Such  is 
the  origin  of  the  order  against  rearing  hogs,  as  related  in  the  Baby- 
lonian Talmud.  One  of  the  enforcements  of  this  prohibition  is 
curious,  as  showing  for  what  purposes  besides  sale,  hogs  had  been 
reared  by  the  Jews.  '  It  is  forbidden  to  rear  any  hog,  even  though 
hogs  should  come  to  a  man  by  inheritance,  in  order  to  obtain  profit 
from  its  skin  or  from  its  fat,  for  anointing  or  for  light.'  From  this 
it  would  seem  that  the  Jews  had  been  wont  to  make  ointments  with 
hog's  lard,  and  that  they  did  not  exclusively  use  oil  for  lights,  but 
fat  also,  which  was  probably  done  according  to  a  method  we  have 
often  seen  in  the  East,  by  introducing  a  wick  into  a  lump  of  grease, 
which  is  set  in  a  lamp,  or  in  a  round  hollow  vessel,  made  for  the 
purpose ;  the  heat  of  the  kindled  wick,  as  in  a  candle,  gradually 
melts  as  much  of  the  fat  as  is  required  to  feed  the  flame.  The  in- 
convenience of  the  deprivation  of  the  useful  lard  of  hogs  for  this 
and  other  purposes,  seems  to  have  given  occasion  to  an  explanation, 
that  the  prohibition  was  not  to  be  understood  to  imply  that  the  fat 
of  hogs  might  not  be  obtained  by  purchase  from  the  Gentiles.  The 
prohibition  of  keeping  hogs  does  not  appear  to  have  had  complete 
effect,  as  regulations  are  made  concerning  towns  in  which  hogs  were 
kept ;  and  the  keepers  of  swine  are  mentioned  as  contemptible  and 
infamous  wretches,  so  that  it  was  a  favorite  term  of  abuse  to  call 
a  person  a  hog-breeder  or  a  swineherd.  Although,  therefore, 
it  may  be  likely  that  the  herds  of  swine  here  mentioned  were  the 
property  of  the  heathen,  who  certainly  did  live  with  the  Jews  in 
the  towns  of  this  neighborhood,  (the  country  of  the  Gadarenes,)  it  is 
not  impossible  that  they  belonged  to  the  Jews,  who  kept  them  in 
despite  of  the  prohibitions  we  have  mentioned." 

Among  the  ancient  Egyptians,  although  the  figure  of  the  hog 
occurs  several  times  well  drawn  at  Edfou,  this  animal  was  held  in 
detestation.  "  Swine,"  says  Herodotus,  "  are  accounted  such  impure 
beasts  by  the  Egyptians,  that  if  a  man  touches  one  even  by  acci- 
dent, he  presently  hastens  to  the  river,  ac-d  in  all  his  clothes  plunges 
himself  into  theVater.  For  this  reason,  swineherds  alone  of  the 
Egyptians  are  not  suffered  to  enter  any  of  their  temples ;  neither 
will  any  man  give  his  daughter  in  marriage  to  one  of  that  profession, 
nor  take  a  wife  born  of  such  parents,  so  that  they  are  necessitated 
to  intermarry  among  themselves.  The  Egyptians  are  forbidden  to 


GENERAL  OBSERVAliONS.  27 

sacrifice  swine  to  any  other  deities  than  to  Bacchus  and  to  the  moon, 
when  completely  at  full,  at,  which  time  they  may  eal  of  the  flesh. 
When  they  offer  this  sacrifice  to  the  moon,  and  have  killed  the 
victim,  they  put  the  end  of  the  tail,  with  the  spleen  and  fat,  into  a 
caul  found  in  the  belly  of  the  animal,  all  which  they  burn  on  the 
sacred  fire,  and  eat  the  rest  of  the  flesh  on  the  day  of  the  full  moon, 
though  at  any  other  time  they  would  not  taste  it.  Those  who,  on 
account  of  their  poverty,  cannot  bear  the  expense  of  this  sacrifice, 
mould  a  paste  into  the  form  of  a  hog,  and  make  their  offering.  In 
the  evening  of  the  festival  of  Bacchus,  though  every  one  be  obliged 
to  kill  a  swine  before  the  door  of  his  house,  yet  he  immediately 
restores  the  carcass  to  the  swineherd  who  sold  it." 

This  aversion  towards  the  hog,  among  the  ancient  Egyptians  and 
the  Jews,  (we  need  not  here  notice  the  Mohammedans  or  the  Brah- 
minical  tribes  of  India,)  is  very  remarkable.  Among  the  Greeks 
and  Romans  the  flesh  of  the  swine  was  held  in  estimation,  although 
the  swineherd  attracted  little  notice  from  the  poet.  Why,  then,  in 
Western  Asia  and  Egypt  should  it  have  been  forbidden  1  We  at- 
tribute it  entirely  to  mystical  or  religious  motives,  which  we  are 
not  quite  able  to  appreciate. 

The  following  passage  from  Griffith's  Cuvier  is  worthy  our  consi- 
deration, although  it  does  not  bring  conviction  to  our  mind ;  it  is 
rather  plausible  than  demonstrative : — "  In  hot  climates  the  flesh  of 
swine  is  not  good.  M.  Sonnini  remarks,  that  in  Egypt,  Syria,  and 
even  the  southern  parts  of  Greece,  this  meat,  though  very  white  and 
delicate,  is  so  far  from  being  firm,  and  is  so  overcharged  with  fat. 
that  it  disagrees  with  the  strongest  stomachs.  It  is  therefore  consi- 
dered unwholesome,  and  this  will  account  for  its  proscription  by  the 
legislators  and  priests  of  the  East.  Such  an  abstinence  was  doubt- 
less indispensable  to  health,  under  the  burning  suns  of  Egypt  and 
Arabia.  The  Egyptians  were  permitted  to  eat  pork  only  once  a 
year-^-on  the  feast  day  of  the  moon — and  then  they  sacrificed  a 
number  of  these  animals  to  that  planet.  At  other  times,  if  any 
one  even  touched  a  hog,  he  was  obliged  immediately  to  plunge  into 
the  river  Nile,  with  his  clothes  on,  by  way  of  purification.  The 
swineherds  formed  an  isolated  class,  the  outcasts  of  society.  They 
were  interdicted  from  entering  the  temples,  or  intermarrying  with 
any  other  families.  This  aversion  for  swine  has  been  transmitted  to 
the  modern  Egyptians.  The  Copts  rear  no  pigs,  any  more  than  do 
the  followers  of  Mohammed.  The  Jews,  who  borrowed  from  the 
Egyptians  their  horror  of  pigs,  as  well  as  many  other  peculiarities, 
continue  their  abstinence  from  them  in  colder  climates,  where  they 
form  one  of  the  most  useful  articles  of  subsistence." 

If  the  hog  in  warm  climates  is  so  unwholesome  as  food,  how  hap 
pens  it  that  the  Chinese  rear  this  animal  in  such  numbers  for  the 
table  ?  and  how  happens  it  that  the  hare  (if  indeed  this  animal  be 


28  THE  HOG. 

intended)  was  forbidden  by  the  Mosaic  laws  as  food  ?  Surely 
the  same  objection  could  not  apply  to  this  latter  animal  as  to  the 
hog.  Whatever  the  motive  might  have  been,  both  among  the 
Egyptians  and  the  Jews,  which  led  them  to  forbid  the  use  of 
swine's  flesh  on  the  table,  a  regard  to  the  health  of  the  people 
was  not  one.  Locusts  were  permitted  by  the  latter,  but  creep- 
ing things  in  general  denied,  as  were  also  fishes  destitute  of  ap- 
parent scales.  Among  the  ancient  Greeks  and  Romans,  the  flesh 
of  the  pig  was  held  in  great  estimation.  The  art  of  rearing, 
breeding,  or  fattening  these  animals,  was  made  a  complete  stu- 
dy ;and  the  dishes  prepared  from  the  meat  were  dressed  with 
epicurean  refinement,  and  in  many  modes.  One  dish  consisted 
of  a  young  pig  whole,  stuffed  with  beccaficoes  and  other  small 
birds,  together  with  oysters,  and  served  in  wine  and  rich  gravy. 
This  dish  was  termed  Porcus  Trojanus,  in  allusion  to  the  wooden 
horse,  filled  with  men,  which  the  Trojans  introduced  into  their 
city — an  unpleasant  allusion,  one  would  think,  seeng  that  the 
Romans  boasted  their  Trojan  descent.  However,  such  was  the 
name  of  this  celebrated  and  most  expensive  dish,  so  costly,  indeed, 
that  sumptuary  regulations  were  passed  respecting  it. 

Esteemed,  however,  as  the  flesh  of  the  hog  was  by  the  Greeks 
and  Romans,  commonly  as  the  animal  was  kept,  and  carefully  and 
even  curiously  as  it  was  fed,  in  order  to  gratify  the  appetites  of  the 
wealthy  and  luxurious,  yet  the  swineherd,  as  may  be  inferred  from 
the  silence  of  the  classic  writers,  and  especially  of  the  poets  who 
painted  rural  life,  was  not  held  in  much  estimation.  No  gods  or 
heroes  are  described  as  keeping  swine.  Theocritus  never  intro- 
duces the  swineherd  into  his  idyls,  nor  does  Virgil  admit  him  into 
his  eclogues,  among  his  tuneful  shepherds.  Homer  indeed  honors 
Eumseus,  the  swineherd  of  Ulysses,  with  many  commendations ;  but 
he  is  a  remarkable  exception.  Perhaps  a  general  feeling  prevailed, 
and  still  in  some  measure  prevails,  that  the  feeders  of  the  gluttonous 
and  wallowing  swine  became  assimilated  in  habits  and  manners  to 
the  animals  under  their  charge ;  or,  it  may  be,  that  the  prejudices 
of  the  Egyptians  relative  to  this  useful  class  of  men,  extended  to 
Greece  or  Italy,  giving  a  bias  to  popular  opinion. 

From  the  earliest  times  in  our  own  island,  the  hog  has  been  re- 
garded as  a  very  important  animal,  and  vast  herds  were  tended  by 
swineherds,  who  watched  over  their  safety  in  the  woods,  and  col- 
lected them  under  shelter  at  night.  Its  flesh  was  the  staple  article 
of  consumption  in  every  household,  and  much  of  the  wealth  of  the 
rich  and  free  portion  of  the  community  consisted  in  these  animals. 
Hence  bequests  of  swine,  with  land  for  their  support,  were  often 
made ;  rights  and  privileges  connected  with  their  feeding,  and  the 
extent  of  woodland  to  be  occupied  by  a  given  number,  were  granted 
according  to  established  rules.  In  an  ancient  Saxon  grant,  quoted 


GENERAL    OBSERVATIONS.  29 

by  Sharon  Turner  in  his  History  of  the  Antlo- Saxons,  we  find  the 
right  of  pasturage  for  swine  conveyed  by  deed  : — "  I  give  food  for 
seventy  swine  in  that  woody  allotment  which  the  countrymen  call 
Wolferdinlegh."  The  locality  of  the  swine's  pasturage,  as  here 
described,  has  a  somewhat  ominous  title,  referring  as  it  does  to  the 
haunt  of  an  animal,  from  incursions  of  which,  on  flocks  of  sheep 
ind  herds  of  swine,  during  the  Saxon  period  of  our  history,  both 
,he  shepherd  and  the  swineherd  had  to  preserve  their  respective 
charges.  The  men  employed  in  the  duties — generally  thralls,  or 
borne  slaves  of  the  soil — were  assisted  by  powerful  dogs,  capable 
of  contending  with  a  wolf,  at  least  until  the  swineherd  came  with 
his  heavy  quarter-staff  or  spear  to  the  rescue.  In  Sir  Walter  Scott's 
novel  of  Ivanhoe,  the  character  of  Gurth  is  a  true,  but  of  course 
somewhat  overcolored  picture  of  an  Anglo-Saxon  swineherd,  as  is 
that  of  his  master  of  a  large  landed  proprietor,  a  great  proportion  of 
whose  property  consisted  in  swine,  and  whose  rude  but  hospitable 
board,  was  liberally  supplied  with  the  flesh. 

Long  after  the  close  of  the  Saxon  dynasty,  the  practice  of  feed- 
ing swine  upon  the  mast  and  acorns  of  the  forest  was  continued, 
till  our  forests  were  cut  down  and  the  land  laid  open  for  the  plough ; 
even  yet,  in  some  districts,  as  the  New  Forest  of  Hampshire,  the 
custom  is  not  discontinued,  and  in  various  parts  of  the  country, 
where  branching  oaks  in  the  hedgerow  overshadow  the  rural  and 
secluded  lanes,  the  cottagers  turn  out  their  pig  or  pigs,  under  the  care 
of  some  boy,  to  pick  up  the  fallen  acorns  in  autumn.  Pigs  turned 
out  upon  stubble  fields  after  harvest,  often  find  in  oak  copses,  in 
October  and  November,  a  welcome  addition  to  their  fare. 

The  large  forests  of  England  were  formerly  royal  property ; 
nevertheless  the  inhabitants  of  the  adjacent  towns,  villages,  and 
farms  enjoyed  both  before  and  long  after  the  Conquest,  under  cer- 
tain conditions  of  a  feudal  nature,  and  probably  varying  according 
to  circumstances,  and  the  tenures  by  which  lands  were  held,  the 
right  of  fattening  their  swine  in  these  woodlands.  The  lawful  period 
for  depasturing  swine  in  the  royal  forests  extended  from  fifteen 
days  before  Michaelmas,  to  forty  days  afterwards,  and  this  was 
termed  the  pawnage  month.  This  term  was  not,  however,  very 
strictly  adhered  to ;  many  herds  were  suffered  to  remain  in  tho 
forest  during  the  whole  year,  the  consequence  of  which  was  that 
numbers  became  feral,  and  were  not  collected  by  their  owners 
without  difficulty.  Little  damage  would  be  done  in  the  woods  by 
these  swine,  but,  no  doubt,  like  their  wild  progenitors,  they  would 
take  every  opportunity  of  invading  the  cultivated  grounds,  and  of 
rioting  in  the  fields  of  green  or  ripening  corn. 

3* 


80  THE  HOG. 


CHAPTER  III. 

The  early  history  of'  Swine—Legendary  and  authentic  records  respecting  the  keeping  of  then 
in  England — Ancient  Welsh  laws  relative  to  Swine — The  forests  of  England — Swineherds— 
Their  mode  of  managing  their  herds— Calabrian  Swineherds— Horn  used  to  assemble  the 
grunting  troop— The  Schwein-General — Herds  of  Swine  kept  in  France — Value  of  Pigs — 
Some  vindication  of  them — Anecdote  proving  their  teachability— Sagacity  of  a  Pig  — 
Some  demonstration  of  Memory  in  one— Attachment  to  individuals — Swkie  not  innately 
Gl'.hy  animals — They  are  possessed  of  more  docility  than  they  usually  have  credit  for — Their 
exquisite  sense  of  smell— Pigs  said  to  foretell  rain  a.nd  wind. 

IN  Greece  and  the  neighboring  islands,  swine  were  common  at  an 
early  period,  and  were  kept  in  large  droves  by  swineherds ;  for  we 
read  in  Homer's  Odyssey,  which  is  supposed  to  have  been  written 
upwards  of  900  years  B.  c.,  that  Ulysses,  on  his  return  from  the 
Trojan  war,  first  sought  the  dwelling  of  Eumeeus,  his  faithful  ser- 
vant, and  the  keeper  of  his  swine :  and  that  office  must  then  have 
been  held  in  high  esteem,  or  it  would  not  have  been  performed  by 
that  wise  and  good  old  man. 

The  rude  tables  of  the  ancient  Britons  were  chiefly  supplied  from 
their  herds  of  swine,  and  the  flesh  of  these  animals  furnished  them 
with  a  great  variety  of  dishes.  (Cassar,  book  i.  chap  1.) 

Sharon  Turner,  in  his  History  of  the  Anglo-Saxons,  while  enu- 
merating their  live  stock,  states  they  had  "  great  abundance  of 
swine ;"  and  adds,  that  although  horned  cattle  are  occasionally  men- 
tioned in  grants,  wills,  and  exchange  of  property,  swine  are  most 
frequently  spoken  of.  The  country  then  abounded  with  woods  and 
forests,  and  these  are  seldom  particularized  without  some  mention 
being  made  of  the  swine  fed  in  them.  These  animals  appear  in  fact 
to  have  constituted  a  considerable  item  in  the  wealth  of  an  indi- 
vidual, for  legacies  of  them  often  occur  in  wills.  Thus  Alfred,  a 
nobleman,  bequeathed  to  his  relatives  a  hide  of  land  with  one  hun- 
dred swine,  and  directs  that  another  hundred  shall  be  given  for 
masses  for  the  benefit  of  his  soul ;  and  to  his  daughters  he  leaves  two 
thousand.  So  Elf  helm  left  land  to  St.  Peter's  at  Westminster,  on 
the  express  condition  that  they  should  feed  a  herd  of  two  hundred 
swine  for  the  use  of  his  wife. 

In  the  original  Doomsday-Book  for  Hampshire,  where  an  estimate 
of  the  value  of  the  lands  and  forests  belonging  to  the  king,  the  mo- 
nasteries, the  hundreds,  and  other  divisions  is  given,  the  number  of 
hogs  which  can  be  fed  on  each  separate  portion  is  invariably  spe- 
cified. 

In  the  oldest  of  the  Welsh  Triads,  (which  treat  of  the  events  of 
Britain  in  general,)  we  find  evidence  of  the  early  domestication 
of  swine,  for  one  of  these  contains  a  recital  of  the  actions  of  three 
powerful  swineherds  in  the  Isle  of  Britain,  "  over  whom  it  was  not 
possible  to  prevail  or  gain,"  and  who  restore  i  the  swine  to  their 


BWINE  IN  THE  FORESTS  OF  ENGLAND.  31 

owners  with  increase.  Some  of  the  fabulous  narrations  blended 
with  the  history  of  these  swineherds  have  been  attributed  by  anti- 
quarians to  a  period  antecedent  to  Christianity. 

In  the  laws  of  Howel  Dha,  there  is  a  chapter  on  the  value  of  ani- 
mals, in  which  it  is  stated  "  that  the  price  of  a  little  pig  from  the 
time  it  is  born  until  it  grows  to  burrow,  is  one  penny ;  when  it  ceases 
sucking,  which  is  at  the  end  of  three  months,  it  is  worth  twopence ; 
from  that  time  it  goes  to  the  wood  with  the  swine,  and  it  is  consi- 
dered as  a  swine,  and  its  value  is  fourpence ;  from  the  Feast  of  St. 
John  unto  the  1st  day  of  January,  its  value  is  fifteenpence ;  from 
the  1st  of  January  unto  the  Feast  of  St.  John,  its  value  is  twenty- 
four  pence ;  and  from  that  time  forward  its  value  shall  be  thirty 
pence,  the  same  as  its  mother." 

"  The  qualities  of  a  sow  are,  that  she  breeds  pigs  and  do  not  de- 
vour her  young  ones.  The  seller  must  also  warrant  her  sound 
against  the  quinsy  for  three  days  and  nights  after  she  is  sold.  If  she 
should  not  possess  these  qualities,  one  third  of  her  price  must  be 
returned.  The  value  of  a  boar  is  equal  to  the  value  of  three  sows." 

The  British  forests,  which  formerly  occupied  the  greater  part  of 
England,  were  peopled  by  the  swinish  multitude.  Hertfordshire 
was  nearly  covered  with  wood  and  forest  land ;  Buckinghamshire 
boasted  its  magnificent  Bern  Wood ;  Hampshire,  its  extensive  New 
Forest ;  nor  were  the  other  counties  destitute  of  these  sylvan  retreats, 
which  have  latterly  vanished  before  the  axe  of  the  woodman  and 
the  industry  of  the  husbandman. 

In  1646  Norwood  in  Surrey  is  described  as  containing  830  acres 
from  which  the  inhabitants  of  Croydon  "  have  herbage  for  all  kinds 
of  cattle,  and  mastage  for  swine  without  stint." 

The  right  of  the  forest  borderers  to  fatten  their  swine  in  the  vari- 
ous forests,  formerly  royal  property,  is  very  ancient,  being  evidently 
anterior  to  the  Conquest.  At  first  a  small  tax  or  fee  was  paid  by 
those  holding  this  right ;  but  whether  this  went  to  the  crown,  or 
consisted  in  a  certain  gratuity  to  the  forest  ranger  or  the  swineherd, 
is  nowhere  specified  in  the  records.  This  privilege,  like  all  others, 
was  greatly  abused;  for  many  of  the  keepers  availed  themselves  of 
it,  and  kept  large  herds  of  swine  which  they  suffered  to  run  the 
forests  during  the  whole  of  the  year,  doing  exceeding  damage  to 
the  timber  as  well  as  to  the  land. 

The  actual  period  for  which  it  was  lawful  to  turn  swine  into  the 
royal  woods  and  forests  for  masting,  was  from  fifteen  days  before 
Michaelmas  to  forty  days  afterwards,  and  this  was  termed  the  pawn- 
age  month. 

Nor  was  the  practice  of  feeding  swine  in  herds,  peculiar  to  this 
country.  In  Calabria  they  are  grazed  in  herds,  and  the  keeper  uses 
a  kind* of  bagpipe,  the  tones  of  which,  when  the  period  arrives  for 
their  being  driven  home,  quickly  collects  the  scattered  groups  from 
ayery  part.  In.  Tuscany  it  is  the  same. 


32  THE  HOG. 

In  Germany  almost  every  village  has  its  swineherd,  who  at  breali 
of  day  goes  from  house  to  house  collecting  his  noisy  troop,  blowing 
his  s'till  more  noisy  cow-horn,  and  cracking  his  clumsy  whip,  until 
the  place  echoes  with  the  din.  The  following  very  amusing  account 
of  that  important  personage,  the  Schwein-  General,  has  lately  been 
given  in  a  popular  work : — 

"  Every  morning  I  hear  the  blast  of  a  horn,  when,  proceeding 
from  almost  every  door  in  the  street,  behold  a  pig !  The  pigs  ge- 
nerally proceed  of  their  own  accord ;  but  shortly  after  they  have 
passed,  there  comes  a  little  bare-headed,  bare-footed,  stunted  child 
about  eleven  years  old.  This  little  attendant  of  the  old  pig-driver 
facetiously  called  at  Langen-Schwalbach  the  '  Schwein -General, 
knows  every  house  from  which  a  pig  ought  to  have  proceeded:  she 
can  tell  by  the  door  being  open  or  shut,  or  even  by  footmarks, 
whether  the  creature  has  joined  the  herd,  or  is  still  snoring  in  its  sty 
A  single  glance  determines  whether  she  shall  pass  a  yard,  or  enter 
it ;  and  if  a  pig,  from  indolence  or  greediness,  be  loitering  on  the 
road,  the  sting  of  the  wasp  cannot  be  sharper  or  more  spiteful  than 
the  cut  she  gives  it. 

"  Besides  the  little  girl  who  brought  up  the  rear,  the  herd  was 
preceded  by  a  boy  of  about  fourteen,  whose  duty  it  was  not  to  let 
the  foremost  advance  too  fast.  In  the  middle  of  the  drove,  sur- 
rounded like  a  shepherd  by  his  flock,  slowly  stalked  the  '  Schwein- 
General.'  In  his  left  hand  he  held  a  staff,  while  round  his  right 
shoulder  hung  a  terrific  whip.  At  the  end  of  a  short  handle,  turn- 
ing upon  a  swivel,  there  was  a  lash  about  nine  feet  long,  each  joint 
being  an  iron  ring,  which,  decreasing  in  size,  was  closely  connected 
with  its  neighbor  by  a  band  of  hard  greasy  leather.  The  pliability, 
the  weight,  and  the  force  of  this  iron  whip,  rendered  it  an  argument 
which  the  obstinacy  even  of  the  pig  was  unable  to  resist ;  yet,  as 
the  old  man  proceeded  down  the  town,  he  endeavored  to  speak 
kindly  to  the  herd. 

"  As  soon  as  the  herd  had  got  out  of  the  town,  they  began  gradu- 
ally to  ascend  the  rocky,  barren  mountain  which  appeared  towering 
above  them,  and  then  the  labors  of  the  Schwein- General  and  his 
staff  became  greater  than  ever ;  in  due  time  the  drove  reached  the 
ground  which  was  devoted  for  that  day's  exercise,  the  whole  moun- 
tain being  thus  taken  in  regular  succession. 

"  In  this  situation  do  the  pigs  remain  every  morning  for  four  hours, 
enjoying  little  else  but  air  and  exercise.  At  about  nine  or  ten 
o'clock  they  begin  their  march  homeward,  and  nothing  can  form  a 
greater  contrast  than  their  entry  does  to  their  exit  from  their  native 
town. 

"  Their  eager  anxiety  to  get  to  the  dinner  trough  that  awaits  them 
is  almost  ungovernable,  and  they  no  sooner  reach  the  first  houses  ot 
the  town  than  away  each  of  them  starts  towards  his  home. 

"  At  half-pa<  four  the  same  horn  is  heard  again ;  the  pigs  once 


THE  SCHWEIN-GKENERAL  OF  GERMANY.  83 

more  assemble,  ascend  the  mountains,  remain  there  for  four  hours, 
and  in  the  evening  return  to  their  styes. 

"  Such  is  the  life  of  the  pigs,  not  only  of  Langen-Schwalbach,  but 
those  of  every  village  throughout  a  great  part  of  Germany  :  every 
day  of  their  existence,  summer  and  winter,  is  spent  in  the  way  des- 
cribed." 

In  France,  swine  are  kept  in  herds,  and  in  many  districts  the  feed- 
ing of  them  in  the  woods  and  forests,  (le  glandage,)  under  certain 
conditions  and  restrictions,  has  been  a  source  of  no  inconside- 
rable emolument  to  the  forester.  Indeed,  to  such  an  extent  was 
it  carried  in  certain  localities,  that  it  became  an  object  of  political 
economy.  But  of  late  years  it  has  much  diminished ;  the  progress 
of  agriculture  is  fast  sweeping  away  those  immense  tracts  of  wood- 
land country  which  formerly  existed  in  England  and  France,  and 
with  them  depart  the  denizens  of  the  forest,  wild  or  tame. 

Nature  designed  the  hog  to  fulfil  many  important  functions  in  a 
forest  country.  By  his  burrowing  after  roots  and  such  like,  he  turns 
up  and  destroys  the  larvae  of  innumerable  insects  that  would  other- 
wise injure  the  trees  as  well  as  their  fruit.  He  destroys  the  slug, 
snail,  snake,  and  adder,  and  thus  not  only  rids  the  forest  of  these 
injurious  and  unpleasant  inhabitants,  but  also  makes  them  subservi- 
ent to  his  own  nourishment,  and  thus  to  the  benefit  of  mankind. 
The  fruits  which  he  eats,  are  such  as  would  otherwise  rot  on  the 
ground  and  be  wasted,  or  yield  nutriment  to  vermin ;  and  his  dig- 
ging for  earth-nuts,  &c.,  loosens  the  soil  and  benefits  the  roots  of  the 
trees.  Hence,  hogs  in  forest-land  may  be  regarded  as  eminently 
beneficial,  and  it  is  only  the  abuse  of  it  which  is  to  be  feared.  The 
German  agriculturist,  Thaer,  does  not,  however,  advocate  the  forest 
feeding  of  swine  unless  they  are  kept  in  the  woods  day  and  night 
and  carefully  sheltered ;  as  he  conceives  that  the  bringing  them  home 
at  night  heats  their  blood,  and  nullifies  the  good  effects  of  the  day's 
feeding.  He  likewise  considers  that,  although  acorns  produce  good 
firm  flesh,  beechmast  makes  unsound  oily  fat. 

But  if  he  is  a  useful  animal  in  this  public  point  of  view,  how 
much  more  so  is  he  to  individuals  ?  Among  the  poorer  classes  ot 
society  how  often  is  the  pig  their  chief  source  of  profit.  In  Ireland  is 
this  especially  the  case ;  there  he  is  emphatically  "  the  gintleman  what 
pays  the  rint"  better  treated  often  than  the  peasant's  own  children. 
The  small  cost  at  which  these  animals  can  be  reared  and  fattened, 
and  their  fecundity  and  wonderful  powers  of  thriving  under  disad- 
vantages, render  them  an  actual  blessing  to  many  a  poor  cotter, 
who,  with  his  little  savings,  buys  a  young  and  ill-conditioned  pig, 
fattens  it  on  all  the  refuse  he  can  beg  or  spare,  or  collect,  and  sells 
it  at  a  good  profit,  or  occasionally,  perhaps,  kills  it  for  the  use  of  his 
family,  who  thus  obtain  an  ample  supply  of  cheap,  nutritious  diet. 

Were  it  not  for  this  animal,  many  of  the  laboring  poor  would 
2* 


84  *    THE  HOG. 

scarcely  be  able  to  keep  a  roof  over  their  heads,  therefore,  we%nay 
with  justice  designate  the  hog  "  the  poor  man's  friend." 

With  the  exception  of  the  rabbit,  swine  are  the  most  prolific  of  all 
domesticated  animals,  and  this  is  another  argument  in  their  favoi 
Nor  does  its  value  cease  with  its  life  ;  there  is  scarcely  a  portion  of 
the  pig  that  is  not  available  for  some  useful  purpose.  The  flesh 
takes  the  salt  more  kindly  than  that  of  any  other  animal,  and, 
whether  dried  as  bacon,  or  salted  down  as  pickled  pork,  forms  an 
excellent  and  nutritious  food,  exceedingly  valuable  for  all  kinds  o! 
stores.  The  fat,  or  lard  is  useful  for  numerous  purposes — the  house- 
wife, the  apothecary,  and  the  perfumer  in  particular,  know  how  to 
value  it ;  the  head,  the  feet,  and  great  part  of  the  intestines,  all  are 
esteemed  as  delicacies.  Brawn,  that  far-famed  domestic  prepara- 
tion— which  is  evidently  no  recently  invented  dish,  for  at  the  mar- 
riage of  Henry  IV.,  in  1403,  and  of  Henry  V.  in  1419,  we  find, 
among  other  records  quoted  by  Strutt,  that  brawn  and  a  kind  of 
hashed  pork  formed  the  staple  dishes — is  made  from  the  hog.  The 
bristles,  too,  are  another  important  item  in  the  matters  furnished  by 
swine ;  they  are  used  by  brushmakers,  and  are  necessary  to  the 
shoemaker,  and  some  idea  may  be  formed  of  the  extent  to  which 
they  form  an  article  of  use  and  of  commerce,  when  we  state  that  in 
the  year  1828  alone,  1,748,921  Ibs.  of  hog's  bristles  were  imported 
into  England,  from  Russia  and  Prussia.  As  these  are  only  taken 
from  the  top  of  the  hog's  back,  each  hog  cannot  be  supposed  to  have 
supplied  more  than  7680,  which,  reckoning  each  bristle  to  weigh  two 
grains,  will  be  one  pound.  Thus,  in  Russia  and  Prussia  in  1728, 
1,748,921  hogs  were  killed  to  supply  the  consumption  of  bristles  in 
England.  The  skin  is  formed  into  pocket-books,  employed  in  the 
manufacture  of  saddles,  and  of  various  other  things,  and  even  the 
ears  are  eaten  in  pies. 

It  has  been  too  much  the  custom  to  regard  the  hog  as  a  stupid, 
brutal,  rapacious,  and  filthy  animal,  grovelling  and  disgusting  in  all 
his  habits ;  intractable  and  obstinate  in  temper.  But  may  not  much 
of  these  evil  qualities  be  attributable  to  the  life  he  leads  1  In  a  na- 
tive state  swine  seem  by  no  means  destitute  of  natural  affections ; 
they  are  gregarious,  assemble  together  in  defence  of  each  other,  herd 
together  for  warmth,  and  appear  to  have  feelings  in  common ;  no 
mother  is  more  tender  of  her  young  than  the  sow,  or  more  resolute 
in  their  defence.  Besides,  neglected  as  this  animal  has  ever  been 
by  authors,  there  are  not  wanting  records  of  many  anecdotes  illus- 
trative of  their  sagacity,  tractability,  and  susceptibility  of  affection. 
How  often  among  the  peasantry,  where  the  hog  is,  in  a  manner  of 
speaking,  one  of  the  family,  may  this  animal  be  seen  following  his 
master  from  place  to  place,  and  grunting  his  recognition  of  his  pro- 
tectors. 

The  well-authenticated  account  of  the  sow  trained  by  Toomer,  A 


A  SPORTING  PIG.  35 

gamekeeper  to  Sir  Henry  Mildmay,  testifies  to  the  teachability  of 
these  animals ;  and  therefore,  as  it  is  our  intention  to  defend  them 
from  many  of  the  aspersions  cast  upon  them,  we  will  quote  it. 

"  Toomer  actually  broke  a  black  sow  to  find  game,  and  to  back 
and  stand.  Slut  was  bred  in,  and  was  of  that  sort  which  maintain 
themselves  in  the  New  Forest  without  regular  feeding,  except  when 
they  have  young,  and  then  but  for  a  few  weeks,  and  was  given, 
when  about  three  months  old,  to  be  a  breeding  sow,  by  Mr.  Thomas 
to  Mr.  Richard  Toomer,  both  at  that  time  keepers  of  the  forest 
From  having  no  young  she  was  not  fed  or  taken  much  notice  of,  and, 
until  about  eighteen  months  old,  was  seldom  observed  near  the 
lodge,  but  chanced  to  be  seen  one  day  when  Mr.  Edward  Toomer 
was  there.  The  brothers  were  concerned  together  in  breaking 
pointers  and  setters,  some  of  their  own  breeding,  and  others  sent  to 
be  broke  by  different  gentlemen ;  of  the  latter,  although  they  would 
stand  and  back,  many  were  so  indifferent  that  they  would  neither 
hunt,  nor  express  any  satisfaction  when  birds  were  killed  and  put 
before  them.  The  slackness  of  these  dogs  first  suggested  the  idea 
that,  by  the  same  method,  any  other  animal  might  be  made  to  stand, 
and  do  as  well  as  any  of  those  huntless  and  inactive  pointers.  At 
this  instant  the  sow  passed  by,  and  was  remarked  as  being  very 
handsome.  R.  Toomer  threw  her  a  piece  or  two  of  oatmeal  roll, 
for  which  she  appeared  grateful,  and  approached  very  near ;  from 
that  time  they  were  determined  to  make  a  sporting  pig  of  her.  The 
first  step  was  to  give  her  a  name,  and  that  of  Slut  (given  in  conse- 
quence of  soiling  herself  in  a  bog)  she  acknowledged  in  the  course 
of  the  day,  and  never  afterwards  forgot.  Within  a  fortnight  she 
would  find  and  point  partridges  or  rabbits,  and  her  training  was 
much  forwarded  by  the  abundance  of  both  which  were  near  the 
lodge  ;  she  daily  improved,  and  in  a  few  weeks  would  retrieve  birds 
that  had  run  as  well  as  the  best  pointer,  nay,  her  nose  was  superior 
to  the  best  pointer  they  ever  possessed,  and  no  two  men  in  England 
had  better.  She  hunted  principally  on  the  moors  and  heaths.  Slut 
has  stood  partridges,  black-game,  pheasants,  snipes,  and  rabbits,  in 
the  same  day,  but  was  never  known  to  point  a  hare.  She  was  sel- 
dom taken  by  choice  more  than  a  mile  or  two  from  the  lodge,  but 
has  frequently  joined  them  when  out  with  their  pointers,  and  con- 
tinued with  them  several  hours.  She  has  sometimes  stood  a  jack- 
snipe  when  all  the  pointers  had  passed  by  it:  she  would  back  the 
dogs  when  they  pointed,  but  the  dogs  refused  to  back  her  until  spoke 
to,  their  dogs  being  all  trained  to  make  a  general  halt  when  the 
word  was  given,  whether  any  dog  pointed  or  not,  so  that  she  has 
been  frequently  standing  in  the  midst  of  a  field  of  pointers.  In 
consequence  of  the  dogs  not  liking  to  hunt  when  she  was  with  them, 
(for  they  dropped  their  sterns  and  showed  symptoms  of  jealousy ») 
she  did  not  very  often  accompany  them,  except  for  the  novelty,  or 


36  THE    HOQ. 

when  she  accidentally  joined  them  in  the  forest.  Her  pace  wa: 
mostly  a  trot,  was  seldom  known  to  gallop,  except  when  called  to 
go  out  shooting ;  she  would  then  come  home  off  the  forest  at  full 
stretch,  for  she  was  never  shut  up  but  to  prevent  her  being  out  of 
the  sound  of  the  call  or  whistle  when  a  party  of  gentlemen  had  ap- 
pointed to  see  her  out  the  next  day,  and  which  call  she  obeyed  as 
regularly  as  a  dog,  and  was  as  much  elevated  as  a  dog  upon  being 
shown  the  gun.  She  always  expressed  great  pleasure  when  game, 
either  dead  or  alive,  was  placed  before  her.  She  has  frequently  stood 
a  single  partridge  at  forty  yards'  distance,  her  nose  in  an  exact  line, 
and  would  continue  in  that  position  until  the  game  moved  :  if  it  took 
wing,  she  would  come  up  to  the  place,  and  put  her  nose  down  two 
or  three  times ;  but  if  a  bird  ran  off,  she  would  get  up  and  go  to 
the  place,  and  draw  slowly  after  it,  and  when  the  bird  stopped  she 
would  stand  it  as  before.  The  two  Mr.  Toomers  lived  about 
seven  miles  apart,  at  Rhinefield  and  Broomey  lodges;  Slut  has 
many  times  gone  by  herself  from  one  lodge  to  the  other,  as  if  to 
court  the  being  taken  out  shooting.  She  was  about  five  years  old 
when  her  master  died,  and,  at  the  auction  of  his  pointers,  &c.,  was 
bought  in  at  ten  guineas.  Sir  Henry  Mi  Id  may  having  expressed  a 
wish  to  have  her,  she  was  sent  to  Dogmersfield  Park,  where  she 
remained  some  years.  She  was  last  in  the  possession  of  Colonel 
Sykes,  and  was  then  ten  years  old,  and  had  become  fat  and  slothful, 
but  could  point  game  as  well  as  ever.  She  was  not  often  used,  ex- 
cepting to  show  her  to  strangers,  as  the  pointers  refused  to  act  when 
out  with  her.  When  killed  she  weighed  700  Ibs.  Her  death-war- 
rant was  signed  in  consequence  of  her  having  been  accused  of  being 
instrumental  to  the  disappearance  of  sundry  missing  larnbs. 
(Daniel's  Rural  Sports.) 

Colonel  Thornton  also  had  a  sow  which  was  regularly  taught  to 
hunt,  quarter  the  ground,  and  back  the  other  pointers. 

Some  thirty  years  since,  it  was  mentioned  in  the  public  papers, 
that  a  gentleman  had  trained  swine  to  run  in  his  carriage,  and  drove 
four-in-hand  through  London  with  these  curious  steeds.  And  not 
long  since  the  market-place  of  St.  Albans  was  completely  crowded, 
in  consequence  of  an  eccentric  old  farmer,  who  resided  a  few  miles 
off,  having  entered  it  in  a  small  chaise-cart  drawn  by  four  hogs  at  a 
brisk  trot,  which  pace  they  kept  up  a  few  times  round  the  area  of 
the  market-place.  They  were  then  driven  to  the  wool-pack  yard, 
and  after  being  unharnessed  were  regaled  with  a  trough  of  beans 
and  wash. 

A  gentleman  present  offered  50Z.  for  the  whole  concern  as  it  stood, 
but  his  offer  was  indignantly  declined.  In  about  two  hours  the  ani 
mals  were  reharnessed,  and  the  old  farmer  drove  off  with  his  ex 
traordinary  team  He  stated  that  he  had  been  six  months  in  train 
ing  them. 


TBACTABILITY  OF  SWINE.  37 

Nor  are  these  cases  without  parallel,  for  Montfaucon  informs  us 
that  Heliogabalus,  the  Roman  emperor,  trained  boars,  stags,  and 
asses  to  run  in  his  chariot;  and  Pennant  states  that  in  Minorca,  and 
that  part  of  Murray  which  lies  between  the  Spey  and  Elgic,  swi.ne 
have  been  converted  into  beasts  of  draught,  and  that  it  is  by  no 
means  unusual  to  see  a  cow,  a  sow,  and  two  young  horses  yoked 
together  in  a  plough,  and  that  the  sow  is  the  best  drawer  of  the  four 
In  Minorca,  the  ass  and  hog  may  be  regularly  seen  working  together 
in  turning  up  land. 

Henderson  gives  another,  and  a  very  simple  account,  illustrative 
of  the  tractability  of  swine  : — 

"  Afeout  twenty-five  years  ago  my  father  farmed  very  extensively 
in  various  parts  of  the  kingdom,  and  upon  one  of  his  farms  in 
Redkirk,  in  the  parish  of  Gretna  Green,  Dumfriesshire,  kept  at 
times  upward  of  one  hundred  swine.  It  so  happened  that  the 
keeper  of  that  flock  was  either  taken  unwell  or  abruptly  left  his 
service  one  harvest,  when  every  creature  able  to  work  was  employed 
in  reaping.  A  brother  and  I,  being  the  only  idlers  about  the  premises, 
the  above  flock  was  given  in  charge  to  us  for  a  few  days,  until  the  pro- 
per keeper  was  found ;  we  were  then  reluctantly  obliged  to  march  off 
with  our  '  hirsel '  early  every  morning  to  a  clover-field  about  a  mile 
distant,  with  our  dinners,  books,  and  great-coats,  &c.,  packed  upon 
our  backs :  we,  however,  soon  began  to  think  it  was  a  great  hard- 
ship for  us  to  be  groaning  under  our  loads  while  so  many  stout,  able 
ponies  were  trotting  along  before  us  at  their  ease,  and  immediately 
set  about  training  one  of  them  to  relieve  us  of  our  burdens,  which 
we  accomplished  in  a  few  days  by  occasionally  scratching  the  animal 
and  feeding  it  with  bread,  &c.,  out  of  our  hands.  It  became  at  last 
so  docile  as  to  stand  every  morning  until  it  received  the  burden 
girted  upon  it,  and  then  marched  on  in  the  rear,  which  place  it  was 
trained  to  keep,  as  we  had  more  than  once  lost  our  dinners  when  it 
was  allowed  to  join  the  herd ;  and  in  the  same  manner  we  soon 
trained  two  or  three  more  into  carrying  the  baggage  in  turns. 
Having  been  so  successful  in  this  training  exploit,  we  then  thought 
it  would  be  turning  our  punishment  into  pleasure  if  we  could  train 
each  of  us  one  to  ride :  this  was  no  sooner  thought  of  than  com- 
menced, and  although  we  received  many  a  tumble,  yet  we  soon  ac- 
complished our  design,  and  succeeded  in  breaking  in  each  two  or 
three  chargers.  At  length  our  system  became  so  complete,  that  we 
not  only  rode  to  and  from  the  field,  but  whenever  any  of  the  herd 
were  likely  to  stray,  or  go  into  some  adjoining  field  of  corn,  &c., 
each  alternately  mounted  his  charger,  and  went  off*  at  full  gallop  to 
turn  back  and  punish  the  transgressors. 

"  Such  as  were  trained,  seldom  or  never  went  astray,  being  always 
about  hand,  and  in  readiness  to  be  mounted ;  in  short,  such  days  as 
my  father  was  from  home,  if,  was  not  unusual  for  a  group  of  servants 


33  THE   HOG. 

to  receive  amusement  from  my  brother  and  I  running  set  matches 
with  our  steeds,  which  were  determined  in  the  usual  manner,  with 
whip  and  spur ;  and  in  this  latter  management  there  was  no  such 
thing  as  bolting  or  tumbling  going  on,  which  occurred  frequently 
dnring  the  training  season.  This  system  however,  came  at  length 
to  my  father's  ears,  for  one  or  two  of  the  racers  happening  to  die  in 
consequence  of  too  severe  heats,  or  too  much  weight :  when  we  were 
immediately  disbanded  from  our  office,  and  (our  holidays  being  ex- 
pired) ordered  off  to  school  again,  which  we  set  about  with  as  much 
reluctance  as  we  did  the  first  morning  in  driving  the  hundred  swine 
to  the  clover-field."  (Henderson's  Practical  Grazier.} 

The  learned  pig  is  another  illustration  of  this  same  quality.  This 
creature  had  been  taught  to  pick  up  letters,  written  upon  pieces  of 
card,  at  command,  and  arrange  them  into  words.  It  was  first 
exhibited  in  the  vicinity  of  Pall-Mall,  in  1789,  at  5s.  each  person. 
The  price  of  admission  was  afterwards  reduced  to  2s.  60?.,  and 
finally  to  1*. 

The  showman  stated  that  he  had  lost  three  hogs  in  the  course  of 
training.  Since  then  there  have  been  many  successors  of  the  "  learned 
pig"  exhibited  at  different  places,  but  none  equal  in  talent  to  the 
original. 

The  next  thing  which  we  shall  claim  for  our  porcine  clients  is 
sagacity  ;  nor  are  we  here  in  want  of  illustrative  evidences  of  their 
possession  of  it.  Bufc  in  general  there  is  nothing  in  the  life  of  a  hog, 
in  his  domesticated  state  at  least,  which  calls  for  any  exercise  of 
reasoning  powers.  His  sole  business  is  to  eat,  drink,  sleep,  and  get 
fat ;  all  his  wants  are  anticipated,  and  his  world  is  limited  to  the 
precincts  of  his  sty  or  of  the  farm-yard.  Yet  even  in  this  state  of 
luxurious  ease,  individuals  have  shown  extraordinary  intelligence. 

Mr.  Craven,  relates  the  following  anecdote  of  an  American  sow : 
"This  animal  passed  her  days  in  the  woods,  with  a  numerous 
litter  of  pigs,  but  returning  regularly  to  the  house  in  the  evening, 
to  share  with  her  family  a  substantial  supper.  One  of  her  pigs  was, 
however,  quietly  slipt  away  to  be  roasted ;  in  a  day  or  two  after- 
wards another ;  and  then  a  third.  It  would  appear  that  this  careful 
mother  knew  the  number  of  her  offspring,  and  missed  those  that 
were  taken  from  her,  for  after  this  she  came  alone  to  her  evening 
meal.  This  occurring  repeatedly,  she  was  watched  out  of  the  wood, 
and  observed  to  drive  back  her  pigs  from  its  extremity,  grunting, 
with  much  earnestness,  in  a  manner  so  intelligible,  that  they  retired 
at  her  command,  and  waited  patiently  for  her  return. 

Surely  this  must  be  the  result  of  something  very  like  reasoning 
powers?  "A  gentleman  residing  at  Caversham  bought  two  pigs 
at  Reading  market,  which  were  conveyed  to  his  house  in  a  sack,  and 
turned  into  his  yard,  which  lies  on  the  banks  of  the  river  Thames. 

"The  next  morning  the  pigs  were  missing.     A  hue  and  cry  was 


SAGACITY  OF  THE   HOG.  39 

immediately  raised,  and  towards  the  afternoon  a  person  gave  infor* 
mation  that  two  pigs  had  been  seen  swimming  across  the  river  at 
nearly  its  broadest  part. 

"  They  were  afterwards  observed  trotting  along  the  Pangbourn 
road,  and  in  one  place  where  the  road  branches  off,  putting  their 
noses  together  as  if  in  deep  consultation.  The  result  was  their  safe 
return  to  the  place  from  which  they  had  originally  been  conveyed 
to  Reading,  a  distance  of  nine  miles,  and  by  cross  roads. 

"  The  farmer  from  whom  they  had  been  purchased,  brought  them 
back  to  their  owner,  but  they  took  the  very  first  opportunity  again 
to  escape,  recrossing  the  water  like  two  dogs,  thus  removing  the 
stigma  on  their  race,  which  proverbially  disqualifies  them  for  '  swim- 
ming  without  cutting  their  own  throats,'  and  never  stopped  until 
they  found  themselves  at  their  first  home." 

Here  we  see  difficulties  overcome,  and  a  strange  element  encoun- 
tered, in  order  to  arrive  at  a  far  distant  spot — the  home  to  which 
the  animals  were  attached.  Some  recollection  of  that  place  or  some 
association  of  ideas  must  have  influenced  the  proceedings  of  these 
animals;  but  to  what  faculty  shall  we  attribute  their  swimming  the 
river  in  a  direct  line  with  their  old  master's  house,  and  then  finding 
their  way  so  immediately  thither  1  And  how  shall  we  account  for 
their  thus  acting  in  concert,  if  pigs  are  to  be  considered  as  the  stupid 
obtuse  brutes  most  persons  are  in  the  habit  of  designating  them  ? 
Such  instances  of  sagacity  in  the  dog  and  the  horse  scarcely  astonish 
us,  because  we  allow  to  them  a  certain  degree  of  reasoning  power. 
But  is  not  the  great  development  of  it  in  them  as  much  arising  from 
their  intercourse,  if  such  we  may  term  it,  with  man  1 — from  their 
being  his  companions,  educated  and  ordered  by  him  1  "  I  have  ob- 
served great  sagacity  in  swine,"  observes  Darwin,  in  his  "  Zoonomia," 
"  but  the  short  lives  we  allow  them,  and  their  general  confinement, 
prevent  their  improvement,  which  would  otherwise  probably  equal 
that  of  the  dog." 

"  The  Naturalist's  Library "  gives  another  anecdote  of  a  hog 
which  is  indicative  of  no  small  degree  of  instinct  or  intelligence : — 

"  Early  in  the  month,  a  pig  that  had  been  kept  several  days  a 
close  prisoner  to  his  sty,  was  let  out  for  the  purpose  of  its  being 
cleaned  and  his  bed  replenished.  On  opening  the  sty-door,  he  an- 
ticipated the  purpose  of  his  liberation  by  running  to  the  stable,  from 
which  he  carried  several  sheaves  of  straw  to  his  sty,  holding  them 
in  his  mouth  by  the  band.  The  straw  being  intended  for  another 
purpose,  it  was  carried  back  to  the  stable ;  but  the  pig,  seizing  a 
more  favorable  opportunity,  regained  it,  to  the  amazement  of  several 
persons,  who  were  pleased  to  observe  the  extraordinary  instinct  of 
this  wonderful  pig. 

Swine  have  also  been  repeatedly  known  to  «"«^.h  themselves  to 
individuals,  and  to  other  animals,  anc  -f  great  docility 

gentleness,  and  affection 

*<.'" 


40  THE  HOG. 

Mr.  Henderson  says,  "  I  have  a  young  sow  of  a  good  breed,  so 
docile  that  she  will  suffer  my  youngest  son,  three  years  of  age,  to 
climb  upon  her  back  and  ride  her  about  for  half  an  hour  at  a  time, 
and  more ;  when  she  is  tired  of  the  fun,  she  lays  herself  down,  care- 
fully avoiding  hurting  her  young  jockey.  He  often  shares  his  bread 
and  meat  with  her." 

A  pig  belonging  to  a  baker  in  Kinghorn,  county  Fife,  became  so 
attached  to  a  bull-dog  that  it  would  follow  and  sport  with  him,  and 
follow  her  master,  when  he  was  accompanied  by  this  dog,  for  five  01 
six  miles.  The  dog  was  fond  of  swimming,  and  the  pig  imitated 
this  propensity ;  and  if  any  thing  was  thrown  into  the  water  for  the 
dog  to  fetch  out,  the  pig  would  follow  and  dispute  the  prize  with 
him  very  cleverly  and  energetically.  These  two  animals  invariably 
slept  together. 

M.  de  Dieskau  tells  us  that  "  he  made  a  wild  boar  so  tame  that 
the  animal,  although  nearly  three  years  old,  would  go  up  stairs  to 
his  apartment,  fawn  upon  him  like  a  dog,  and  eat  from  his  hand. 
He  also  endeavored  to  bring  up  one  which  he  caught  very  young, 
and  which  formed  such  an  attachment  to  a  young  lady  in  the  house 
that  he  accompanied  her  wherever  she  went,  and  slept  upon  her  bed. 
Once  he  attacked  her  maid  as  she  was  undressing  her  mistress,  and, 
had  he  been  strong  enough,  would  have  done  her  some  mortal  in- 
jury. This  lady  was  the  only  person  in  the  house  for  whom  the 
creature  showed  any  affection,  and  yet  he  was  not  fed  by  her.  At 
last  he  fretted  himself  to  death  on  account  of  a  fox  which  had  been 
taken  into  the  house  to  be  tamed." 

A  very  amusing  account  of  a  "  pet  pig  "  is  given  by  a  lady,  in 
"  Chambers'  Edinburgh  Journal:" — 

"  Being  at  a  loss  to  know  what  to  do  with  the  refuse  of  our  gar- 
den, Aunt  Mary  suggested  that  a  pig  should  be  purchased.  Accord- 
ingly our  little  damsel  Annette  was  despatched  to  a  neighboring 
farmer,  and,  in  exchange  for  a  few  shillings,  she  brought  home  a  fat, 
fair,  round  pig,  just  six  weeks  old ;  and  in  her  haste  to  display  her 
bargain  she  tumbled  >t  out  in  the  sitting-room.  Nothing  daunted 
by  the  splendor  of  its  new  abode,  the  pig  ran  up  and  down,  snorting 
and  snuffing  at  every  chair  and  table  in  the  room,  overturning  with 
his  snout  my  aunt's  footstool,  and  trying  his  teeth  on  her  new  straw 
work-basket.  After  the  pig  had  been  duly  admired  and  commented 
on,  Annette  was  desired  to  install  it  in  its  own  domicile ;  but  this 
was  more  easily  said  than  done ;  for  being,  I  suppose,  pleased  with 
his  new  quarters,  Toby — for  so  we  named  him — ran  hither  and 
thither,  now  scudding  behind  a  chair  or  table,  now  whisking  under 
the  sofa ;  at  length  Annette  succeeded  in  dragging  him  from  his 
hiding-place  while  he  roared  out  '  Murder !'  as  plain  as  a  pig  could 
speak.  Annette  ^s^very  fond  of  dumb  creatures,  as  she  called 
them ;  the  pig  >•'  ~"  <la*Jing,  and  for  want  of  a  companion  of 


CLEANLINESS  AND   SENSITIVENESS   OF  HOGS.  41 

her  own  species,  Toby  became  her  constant  associate ;  and  finding 
his  visits  to  the  kitchen  were  winked  at,  he  made  use  of  the  privi- 
lege, and  would  bask  himself  at  full  length  before  the  fire.  He 
even  ventured  occasionally  to  follow  her  into  the  front  lobby ;  and 
if,  as  sometimes  was  the  case,  she  put  him  into  the  yard,  he  would 
kick  up  such  a  row  at  the  kitchen  door  to  be  let  in,  thumping  on  it 
with  his  snout,  that  she  was  fain  to  admit  him  to  his  old  quarteis. 
Toby  was  of  a  very  social  disposition,  and  so  fond  of  Annette,  and  so 
grateful  for  her  kindness,  that  he  would  follow  her  about  everywhere  ; 
indeed  to  my  great  surprise,  one  day  I  found  him  standing  sentry  over 
her  while  she  was  putting  down  the  stair  carpet,  and  he  seemed  to  be 
watching  her  proceedings  with  a  very  sagacious  air.  In  process  of  time 
there  came  another  proof  that  the  course  of  true  love  never  did  run 
smooth.  Annette  fell  into  bad  health,  and  returned  to  her  home ; 
the  damsel  who  replaced  her,  had  no  taste  for  the  society  of  pigs ; 
so  she  thumped  Toby  away  from  the  kitchen  door,  and  many  were 
the  blows  he  got  from  her  broom,  or  whatever  missile  first  came  to 
hand.  Toby  was  soon  exiled  to  his  sty,  much  against  his  inclina 
tion,  for  he  evidently  would  have  preferred  bivouacking  in  the  back 
premises.  We  seldom  passed  to  the  garden  without  throwing  him 
some  comfort  in  the  shape  of  a  few  cabbage-leaves,  a  handful  of 
acorns,  or  a  bunch  of  turnip-tops.  It  was  truly  amusing  to  see 
Toby  make  his  bed.  As  the  straw  which  was  furnished  for  it  was 
rather  long  and  coarse,  Toby  used  to  take  it  bunch  by  bunch  in  his 
teeth,  and  run  into  a  corner,  breaking  it  into  small  pieces;  and 
having  accomplished  this  feat,  he  proceeded  to  arrange  his  couch  in 
the  most  methodical  manner.  One  day,  Betty  having  omitted  to 
give  him  his  dinner,  Toby  in  a  great  passion,  jumped  out  of  his  sty, 
and  came  running  to  the  kitchen  door  to  see  what  was  the  reason 
of  his  being  so  shamefully  neglected,  and  loud  and  long  were  hi? 
remonstrances  on  the  subject.  Finding  it  difficult  to  get  the  poor 
animal  properly  attended  to,  he  was  transferred  to  a  neighbor ;  and 
we  never  gave  him  a  successor,  as  we  scarcely  expected  to  find  in 
another  of  his  species  that  gratitude  for  kindness  and  affection  for 
his  friends,  which  shone  so  conspicuous  in  the  character  of  poor 
Toby," 

It  may  appear  absurd  to  ciaim  cleanliness  as  a  swinish  virtue ;  but 
in  point  of  actual  fact  the  pig  is  a  much  more  cleanly  animal  than 
most  of  his  calumniators  give  him  credit  for  being.  He  is  fond  of 
a  good  cleanly  bed  ;  and  often,  when  this  is  not  provided  for  him,  it 
is  curious  to  see  the  degree  of  sagacity  with  which  he  will  forage  for 
himself.  "A  hog  is  the  cleanliest  of  all  creatures,  and  will  never 
dung  or  stale  in  his  sty  if  he  can  get  forth,"  says  a  quaint  old  writer 
of  the  sixteenth  century,  and  we  are  very  much  of  his  opinion.  But 
it  is  so  much  the  habit  to  believe  that  this  animal  may  be  kept  in 
any  state  of  filth  and  neglect,  that  "pig"  and  "pig-sty"  are  terms 


42  THE  HOG. 

usually  regarded  a*  synonymous  with  all  that  is  dirty  and  dis- 
gusting. 

His  rolling  in  the  mud  is  alleged  against  him  as  a  proof  of  his 
filthy  habits ;  if  so,  the  same  accusation  applies  to  the  elephant,  the 
rhinoceros,  and  other  of  the  Pachyderrnata.  May  this  not  rather  be 
for  the  purpose  of  cooling  themselves  and  keeping  off  flies,  as  we 
admit  it  to  be  in  the  case  of  the  animals  above  mentioned  ?  Savages 
cover  themselves  with  grease  in  hot  climates  in  order  to  protect  neir 
skins;  may  not  instinct  teach  animals  to  roll  themselves  in  mud  for 
a  similar  purpose  ? 

Pigs  are  exceedingly  fond  of  comfort  and  warmth,  and  will  nestle 
together  in  order  to  obtain  the  latter,  and  often  struggle  vehemently 
to  secure  the  warmest  berth. 

They  are  eminently  sensitive  of  approaching  changes  in  the 
weather,  and  may  often  be  observed  suddenly  to  leave  the  places  in 
which  they  had  been  quietly  feeding,  and  run  off  to  their  styes  at 
full  speed,  making  loud  outcries.  When  storms  are  overhanging, 
they  collect  straw  in  their  mouths,  and  run  about  as  if  inviting  their 
companions  to  do  the  same ;  and  if  there  is  a  shed  or  shelter  near 
at  hand,  may  be  seen  to  carry  and  deposit  it  there,  as  if  for  the  pur- 
pose of  preparing  a  bed.  Hence  has  arisen  the  common  Wiltshire 
saying,  "  Pigs  see  the  wind."  Virgil,  in  enumerating  the  signs  of 
settled  fine  weather,  notices  this  peculiarity  in  swine : — 

4<  Nor  sows  unclean  are  mindful  to  provide 
Their  nestling  beds  of  mouth-collected  straw  I" 

Foster  says — "  When  hogs  shake  the  stalks  of  corn,  and  thereby 
spoil  them,  it  indicates  rain ;  and  when  they  run  squeaking  about 
and  throw  up  their  heads  with  a  peculiar  jerk,  windy  weather  is  about 
to  commence." 

Darwin  observes — "  It  is  a  sure  sign  of  a  cold  wind  when  pigs 
collect  straw  in  their  mouths,  and  run  about  crying  loudly.  They 
would  carry  it  to  their  beds  for  warmth,  and  by  their  calls  invite 
their  companions  to  do  the  same,  and  add  to  the  warmth  by  nume 
rous  bedfellows." 

In  their  domesticated  state,  swine  certainly  are  very  greedy 
animals ;  eating  is  the  business  of  their  lives ;  nor  do  they  appear 
so  very  delicate  as  to  the  kind  or  quality  of  the  food  which  is  set 
before  them.  Although  naturally  herbiverous  animals,  they  have 
been  known  to  devour  carrion  with  all  the  voracity  of  beasts  of 
prey,  to  eat  and  mangle  infants,  and  even  gorge  their  appetites  with 
their  own  young. 

Low,  however,  says — "  Instances  have  occurred  in  which  a  sow 
has  been  known  to  devour  her  young ;  but  rarely,  if  ever,  does  this 
nappen  in  a  state  of  nature.  It  is  not  unreasonable  to  believe  that 
when  an  act  so  revolting  does  occur,  it  arises  nore  from  the  pain 


INTRACTABILITY  OF  HOGS.  43 

and  irritation  produced  by  the  state  of  confinement,  and  often  filth, 
in  which  she  is  kept,  and  the  disturbances  to  which  she  is  subjected, 
than  from  any  actual  ferocity :  for  it  is  well  known  that  a  sow  is 
always  unusually  irritable  at  this  period,  snapping  at  all  animals 
that  approach  her.  If  she  is  gently  treated,  properly  supplied  with 
sifstenance,  and  sequestered  from  all  annoyance,  there  is  little  danger 
of  this  ever  happening." 

Roots  and  fruits  are  the  natural  food  of  the  hog,  in  a  wild  as  well  as 
in  a  domesticated  state  ;  and  it  is  evident  that,  however  omnivorous 
this  animal  may  occasionally  appear,  its  palate  is  by  no  means 
insensible  to  the  difference  of  eatables,  for  whenever  it  finds  variety 
it  will  be  found  to  select  the  best  with  as  much  cleverness  as  other 
quadrupeds.  "  In  the  peach-tree  orchards  of  North  America,"  says 
Pennant,  "  where  hogs  have  plenty  of  delicious  food,  they  have  been 
observed  to  neglect  the  fruit  that  has  lain  a  few  hours  upon  the 
ground,  and  patiently  wait  for  a  considerable  time  for  a  fresh 
windfall." 

According  to  Linnaeus,  the  hog  is  more  nice  in  the  selection  of  his 
vegetable  diet  than  any  of  our  other  domesticated  herbivorous 
animals.  This  great  naturalist  states  that — 

The  Cow        eats  276  plants  and  rejects  218 

"  Goat          "    449  "  126 

"  Sheep        «     387  "  141 

"  Horse        "    262  "  212 

but  that  the  Hog  only  "      72  171 

They  are  gifted  with  an  exquisite  sense  of  smell  as  well  as  touch, 
residing  in  the  snout,  and  this  enables  them  to  discover  roots,  acorns, 
earth-nuts,  or  other  delicacies  suitable  to  their  palates,  which  may  be 
buried  in  the  ground. 

In  some  parts  of  Italy  swine  are  employed  in  hunting  for  truffles, 
that  grow  some  inches  below  the  surface  of  the  soil,  and  form  those 
pickles  and  sauces  so  highly  esteemed  by  epicures.  A  pig  is  driven 
into  a  field,  and  there  suffered  to  pursue  his  own  course.  Wherever 
he  stops  and  begins  to  root  with  his  nose,  truffles  will  invariably  be 
found. 

The  last  charg'e  which  we  shall  endeavor  to  refute  is  that  of  in- 
tractability. All  tfie  offences  which  swine  commit  are  attributed  to 
an  innately  bad  disposition ;  whereas  they  too  often  arise  solely 
from  bad  management  or  total  neglect.  Would  horses  or  cattle  be- 
have one  iota  better,  were  they  treated  as  pigs  too  often  are  ?  They 
are  legitimate  objects  for  the  sport  of  idle  boys,  hunted  with  dogs, 
pelted  with  stones,  often  neglected  and  obliged  to  find  a  meal  for 
themselves,  or  wander  about  half-starved.  Can  we  wonder  that, 
under  such  circumstances,  they  should  be  wild,  unmanageable  brutes  ? 
Look  at  tho  swine  in  a  well-regulated  farm-yard — they  are  as  peace- 


44:  THE   HOG. 

able,  and  as  little  disposed  to  wander  or  trespass,  as  any  of  the  other 
animals  that  it  contains.  Here,  as  in  many  other  things,  man  is  but 
too  willing  to  attribute  the  faults,  which  are  essentially  of  his  own 
causing,  to  any  other  than  their  true  source. 

Martin  says : — It  has  been  usual  to  condemn  the  domestic  hog,  in 
no  very  measured  terms,  as  a  filthy,  stupid  brute,  at  once  glutton- 
ous, obstinate,  and  destitute  of  intelligence.  Against  this  sweeping 
censure  we  beg  to  enter  our  protest.  With  regard  to  the  filthiness 
of  the  hog  in  a  state  of  confinement,  every  thing  will  depend  on  the 
trouble  taken  by  its  keeper.  He  may  allow  the  sty  or  the  yard  to 
be  covered  with  filth  of  every  description,  as  disgraceful  to  himself 
as  it  is  injurious  to  the  animals.  In  this  case  the  hog  is  the  sufferer, 
for  naturally  it  delights  in  clean  straw,  luxuriating  in  it  with  evident 
pleasure,  its  twinkling  little  eyes  and  low  grunt  expressing  its  feel- 
ings of  contentment.  In  fact,  the  hog,  so  far  from  being  the  filthi- 
est, is  one  of  the  cleanliest  of  our  domestic  quadrupeds,  and  is  un- 
willing to  soil  the  straw  bed  of  his  domicile  if  any  thing  like  liberty 
be  allowed  him.  It  may  be  here  said,  is  not  the  hog  fond  of  wal- 
lowing in  the  mire  ?  Undoubtedly  it  is ;  and  so  are  all  the  genuine 
packydermata,  as  the  elephant,  the  rhinoceros,  and  the  tapir.  The 
skin  of  these  animals,  thick  as  it  may  be,  is  nevertheless  sensitive, 
and  a  covering  of  mud  is  doubtless  intended  as  a  protection  to  the 
skin  in  the  heat  of  summer,  (the  time  in  which  the  hog  chiefly  de- 
lights to  wallow,)  both  against  the  scorching  rays  of  the  sun  and  the 
attacks  of  myriads  of  puny  but  intolerable  winged  persecutors.  No 
animal  delights  more  to  have  its  hide  rubbed  and  scratched  than  the 
hog — a  circumstance  which  every  one  practically  conversant  with 
pigs  must  have  very  frequently  noticed. 

With  respect  to  the  gluttony  of  the  pig,  we  acknowledge  him  to 
be  "  a  huge  feeder ;"  but  so  is  the  horse  or  the  ox,  and  indeed  every 
animal  that  has  to  support  a  bulky  carcass ;  and  not  only  so,  but 
become  fat  upon  vegetable  aliment.  To  a  certain  extent,  indeed,  the 
hog  is  omnivorous,  and  may  be  reared  on  the  refuse  of  the  butchers' 
slaughter-houses  ;  but  such  food  is  not  wholesome,  nor  is  it  natural; 
for  though  this  animal  be  omnivorous,  it  is  not  essentially  carnivo- 
rous. Vegetable  productions,  as  roots  and  grain,  beech-mast,  and 
acorns,  constitute  the  staple  of  its  natural  diet ;  hence,  the  refuse  of 
the  dairy  farm  is  more  congenial  to  the  health  of  the  animal,  to  say 
nothing  of  the  quality  of  its  flesh.  All  animals  eat  with  a  keen 
relish — the  hog  amongst  the  rest ;  besides,  his  appetite  is  pampered, 
the  object  being  to  make  him  fat:  and  certainly  a  well-fed,  plump 
hog  is  a  more  comely-looking  beast  than  the  gaunt,  lean,  flat-sided 
animals  so  generally  seen  in  France  and  Germany.  However,  if 
the  charge  of  gluttony  be  proved  against  the  pig  fattening  in  his  sty, 
it  may  be  equally  proved  against  the  ox  fattening  in  his  stall.  When 
old,  or  when  oppressed  by  fat,  the  hog,  ;t  must  be  confessed,  is  slug 


SAGACITY  OF  HOGS.  46 

gish  and  indolent ;  when  young,  however,  it  is  lively  and  energetic, 
and  disposed  to  indulge  in  sportive  gambols,  which,  for  any  thing  we 
can  see,  are  quite  as  amusing  as  those  of  lambs. 

Many  extraordinary  examples  of  the  docility  and  intelligence  01 
the  too  much  despised  hog  are  on  record.  Be  it  remembered,  that 
it  belongs  to  that  group  of  which  the  sagacious  elephant  forms  a 
portion — not  that  we  assert  the  intellectual  equality  of  the  two  ani- 
mals ;  still,  we  believe  that  the  hog  may  be  trained  to  various  modes 
of  labor,  with  far  less  trouble  than  is  generally  supposed.  It  is  not, 
however,  needed  for  any  such  purposes  ;  consequently,  except  in  a 
few  isolated  instances,  its  education  is  utterly  neglected  ;  all  it  has 
to  do  is  to  eat  and  sleep,  and  become  fat — its  utility  to  man  com- 
mencing  at  its  death,  by  the  knife  of  the  butcher.  Yet,  even  under 
the  disadvantages  in  which  the  pig  is  placed — debarred  its  liberty, 
prevented  from  exercising  its  natural  instincts,  and  undisciplined  in 
the  slightest  degree — it  manifests  both  discernment  and  attachment ; 
it  recognizes  the  voice,  and  even  the  footsteps  of  its  feeder,  and  is 
evidently  pleased  with  his  notice.  Instances  of  the  attachment  of 
pigs  to  particular  persons,  and  even  to  other  animals,  are  on  record. 
It  is  not  often,  however,  that  porcine  familiarity  is  encouraged.  Set- 
ting all  prejudice  aside,  it  must  be  confessed  that  the  animal  would 
be  more  likely  to  prove  troublesome  and  annoying,  than  agreeable 
or  welcome.  We  have,  however,  heard  of  persons  who  have  petted 
pigs,  and  know  many  who  woul'd  abhor  to  partake  of  the  flesh  of 
one  reared  upon  their  own  premises — a  circumstance  not  to  be  won- 
dered at,  when  we  consider  that,  while  alive,  the  animal  not  only 
knew  them,  but  greeted  their  approach,  and  displayed  unmistak- 
able signs  of  attachment. 

The  senses  of  smell,  taste,  and  hearing,  are  possessed  by  the  hog 
in  great  perfection.  It  is  a  common  saying  that  pigs  can  smell  the 
coming  storm  ;  certain  it  is  that  they  are  very  sensitive  of  approach- 
ing changes  of  weather.  They  become  agitated,  hurry  under  shel- 
ter, and  during  the  continuance  of  the  storm  utter  screams,  run 
about  with  straw  in  their  mouths,  or  carry  it  to  their  sty  as  if  to  add 
to  their  comfort  and  defence.  This  peculiarity  has  been  noticed  in 
ancient  times,  as  well  as  in  the  present.  Dr.  Darwin,  in  his  Zoono- 
mia,  says,  "  It  is  a  sure  sign  of  a  cold  wind  when  pigs  collect  straw 
in  their  mouths,  and  run  about  crying  loudly.  They  would  carry  it 
to  their  beds  for  warmth,  and  by  their  calls  invite  their  companions 
to  do  the  same,  and  add  to  the  warmth  by  numerous  bedfellows." 
At  all  times  pigs  are  fond  of  huddling  together  under  the  straw,  but 
especially  in  chilly  or  windy  weather,  from  which  the  young  in  par- 
ticular appear  to  suffer  much.  From  this  cause,  litters  of  pigs  far 
rowed  during  a  severe  winter  are  often  greatly  thinned,  and  the  sw 
vivors  thrive  with  difficulty. 


THE   HOG. 


CHAPTER  IV 

The  Wild  Boar—Description  of  him— Characteristics — the  Femile  and  her  y  oung— Hunting  the 
Wild  Boar — Homer's  description  of  a  Boar-hunt — Roman  festivals  and  games — the  Wild 
Boar  in  England  and  Scotland — in  France — in  Germany — Mode  of  hunting  the  boar  in  Ger- 
many— Wild  Boar  park  of  the  Emperor  of  Austria — Present  wild  breed  in  Germany— in 
Hungary — in  the  Styrian  Alps — in  Russia  and  Sweden — In  the  East — Habits  of  the  Wild 
Hog  in  India— Wild  Hog  hunting  in  India— The  wild  t,reed  in  America—Fearful  conflict  with 
a  wild  herd  in  Columbia — The  Wild  Boar  the  parent  stock  of  all  domesticated  breeds — • 
Resemblances  between— Alterations  produced  by  domestication— Resumption  of  old  habits  on 
again  becoming  free  from  control  of  man. 

THE  wild  boar  (sus  scrofa  ;  var.  aper)  is  generally  admitted  to  be 
the  parent  of  the  stock  from  which  all  our  domesticated  breeds  and 
varieties  have  sprung.  This  animal  is  generally  of  a  dusky  brown 
or  iron-gray  color,  inclining  to  black,  and  diversified  with  black 
spots  or  streaks.  The  body  is  covered  with  coarse  hairs,  intermixed 


THE    WILD   BOAR. 


with  a  downy  wool ;  these  hairs  become  bristles  as  they  approach 
the  neck  and  shoulders,  and  are  here  so  long  as  to  form  a  species  of 
mane,  which  the  animal  erects  when  irritated.  The  head  is  short, 
the  forehead  broad  and  flat,  the  ears  short,  rounded  at  the  tips  and 
inclined  towards  the  neck,  the  jaw  armed  with  sharp  crooked  tuski 


CHARACTERISTICS  OF  THE  WILD  BOAR.  47 

which  curve  slightly  upwards,  and  are  capable  of  inflicting  fearful 
wounds,  the  eye  full,  neck  thick  and  muscular,  the  shoulders  high, 
the  loins  broad,  the  tail  stiff,  and  finished  off  with  a  tuft  of  bristles 
at  the  tip,  the  haunch  well  turned,  and  the  legs  strong.  A  full-grown 
wild  boar  in  India  averages  from  thirty  to  forty  inches  in  height  at 
the  shoulder.  The  African  wild  boar  is  about  twenty-eight  or  thirty 
inches  high. 

The  wild  boar  is  a  very  active  and  powerful  animal,  and  becomes 
fiercer  as  he  grows  older.  When  he  exists  in  a  state  of  nature,  he 
will  usually  be  found  in  moist,  shady,  and  well-wooded  situations, 
not  far  remote  from  streams  or  water.  In  India,  they  are  found 
in  the  thick  jungles,  in  plantations  of  sugar-canes,  rice,  or  rhur,  or 
in  the  thick  patches  of  high,  long  grass.*  In  England,  France, 
Germany,  Italy,  and  Spain,  their  resorts  have  been  in  the  woods 
and  forests.  This  animal  is  naturally  herbivorous,  and  appears  to 
feed  by  choice  upon  plants,  fruits,  and  roots.  He  will,  however,  eat 
the  worms  and  larvae  which  he  finds  in  the  ground,  also  snakes  and 
other  such  reptiles,  and  the  eggs  of  birds ;  and  Buffon  states  that 
wild  boars  have  been  seen  to  devour  the  flesh  of  dead  horses, 
while  other  authors  accuse  them  of  devouring  hares,  leverets,  par- 
tridges, and  indeed  all  kinds  of  small  game,  and  feeding  greedily 
upon  carrion ;  but  this  has  also  been  asserted  to  be  only  the  case 
when  they  are  pressed  by  hunger.  They  seldom  quit  their  coverts 
during  the  day,  but  prowl  about  in  search  of  food  during  twilight 
and  the  night.  Their  acute  sense  of  smell  enables  them  to  detect 
the  presence  of  roots  or  fruits  deeply  imbedded  in  the  soil,  and 
they  often  do  considerable  mischief  by  ploughing  up  the  ground  in 
search  of  them,  particularly  as  they  do  not,  like  the  common  hog, 
root  up  a  little  spot  here  and  there,  but  plough  long  continuous 
furrows. 

The  wild  boar,  properly  so  called,  is  neither  a  solitary  nor  a  gre- 
garious animal.  For  the  first  two  or  three  years  the  whole  herd 

^_ 

*  The  wild  hog  delights  in  cultivated  situations,  but  will  not  remain  where 
water  is  not  at  hand  in  which  he  can  quench  his  thirst  and  wallow  at  his  ease, 
nor  will  he  resort  a  second  season  to  a  spot  that  does  not  afford  ample  cover, 
either  of  heavy  grass  or  underwood  jungle,  within  a  certain  distance  of  him,  to 
fly  to  in  case  of  molestation,  and  especially  to  serve  as  a  retreat  during  the  hot 
eeason,  as  otherwise  he  would  find  no  shelter.  The  sugar-cane  is  his  great  de- 
light, both  as  affording  his  favorite  food  and  yielding  a  highly  impervious,  and 
unfrequented  situation.  In  these  the  hogs,  and  the  breeding  sows  especially, 
commit  great  devastation,  for  the  latter  not  only  devour  but  cut  the  canes  for 
a  litter,  and  to  throw  up  a  species  of  hut.  which  they  do  with  mnch  art,  leaving 
a  small  entrance  which  they  can  stop  up  at  pleasure.  Sows  never  quit  their 
young  pigs  without  completely  shutting  them  up.  This  is,  however,  only  re- 
quisite for  a  few  days,  after  which,  the  little  ones  may  be  seen  following  their 
mother  at  a  good  round  pace,  though  evidently  not  more  than  a  week  or  ten 
days  old. — Williamson's  Oriental  Field  Sports. 


48  THE   HOG. 

follows  the  sow,  and  all  unite  in  defence  against  any  enemies,  calling 
upon  each  other  with  loud  cries  in  case  of  emergency,  and  forming 
in  regular  line  of  battle,  the  weakest  occupying  the  rear.  But  when 
arrived  at  maturity,  the  animals  wander  alone,  as  if  in  perfect  con- 
sciousness of  their  strength,  and  appear  as  if  they  neither  sought 
nor  avoided  any  living  creature.  They  are  said  to  live  about  thirty 
years  ;  as  they  grow  old  the  hair  becomes  gray,  and  the  tusks  begin 
to  show  symptoms  of  decay.  Old  boars  are  rarely  found  associ- 
ating with  a  herd,  but  seem  to  keep  apart  from  the  rest,  and  from 
each  other. 

The  female  produces  but  one  litter  in  the  year,  and  her  litters  are 
much  smaller  in  number  than  those  of  the  domestic  pig  ;  she  carries 
her  young  sixteen  or  twenty  weeks,  and  generally  is  only  seen  with 
the  male  during  the  rutting  season.  She  suckles  her  young  for 
several  months,  and  continues  to  protect  them  for  some  time  after 
wards ;  if  attacked  then,  she  will  defend  herself  and  them  with 
exceeding  courage  and  fierceness.  Many  sows  will  often  be  found 
herding  together,  each  followed  by  her  litter  of  young  ones,  and  in 
such  parties  they  are  exceedingly  formidable  to  man  and  beast. 
Neither  they  nor  the  boar,  however,  appear  to  want  to  attack  any 
thing,  but  only  when  roused  by  aggression,  or  disturbed  in  their 
retreat,  do  they  turn  upon  their  enemies  and  manifest  their  mighty 
strength  with  which  nature  has  endowed  them,  otherwise  they  pur- 
sue their  way  in  a  kind  of  solitary  savage  majesty.  Occasionally 
when  two  males  encounter  each  other,  a  fierce  and  furious  battle  will 
ensue,  especially  if  this  happens  during  the  rutting  season,  when  their 
passions  are  inflamed.  When  attacked  by  dogs,  the  wild  boar  at  first 
sullenly  retreats,  turning  upon  them  from  time  to  time,  and  menacing 
them  with  his  tusks ;  but  gradually  his  ire  rises,  and  at  length  he 
stands  at  bay,  fights  furiously  for  his  life,  and  tears  and  rends  his 
persecutors.  He  has  even  been  observed  to  single  out  the  most 
tormenting  of  them,  and  rush  savagely  upon  him. 

Hunting  the  wild  boar  has  been  a  favorite  sport,  in  almost  all  the 
countries  in  which  this  animal  wife  found,  from  the  earliest  ages.  In 
all  the  ancient  Grecian  and  Roman  classical  writers,  some  allusions 
to  this  animal  will  be  found.  Homer,  whose  vivid  portraitures  of 
the  actions  and  habits  of  princes  and  warriors  nearly  thirty  years 
ago,  are  known  to  almost  every  scholar,  again  and  again  refers  to 
this  savage  denizen  of  the  forests,  nor  can  we  deny  ourselves  the 
pleasure  of  extracting  the  following  graphic  lines  : — 

"  Soon  as  the  morn,  new  roll'd  in  purple  light, 
Pierc'd  with  her  golden  shafts  the  rear  of  night, 
Ulysses,  and  his  brave  maternal  race 
The  young  Antolici,  assay  the  chase  ; 
Parnassus,  thick  perplex'd  with  horrid  shades, 
With  deep-mouthed  hounds  the  hunter  troop  invades  j 


A   WILD  BOAR  HUNT,    FROM  HOMER.  ±9 

iVTmt  time  the  sun  from  ocean's  peaceful  stream 

Darts  o'er  the  lawn  his  horizontal  beam. 

The  pack  impatient  snuff  the  tainted  gale  ; 

The  thorny  wilds  the  woodmen  fierce  assail ; 

And  foremost  of  the  Train,  his  cornel  spear 

Ulysses  wav'd  to  rouse  the  savage  war ; 

Deep  in  the  rough  recesses  of  the  wood, 

A  lofty  copse,  the  growth  of  ages  stood  ; 

Nor  winter's  boreal  blast,  nor  thund'rous  show'r, 

Nor  solar  ray  could  pierce  the  shady  bower, 

With  witherd  foliage  strew'd,  a  heavy  store ! 

The  warm  pavilion  of  a  dreadful  boar. 

Rous'd  by  the  hounds'  and  hunters'  mingling  cries,——— 

The  savage  from  his  leafy  shelter  flies, 

With  fiery  glare  his  sanguine  eye-bails  shine 

And  bristles  high  impale  his  horrid  chine. 

Young  Ithacus  advanced,  defies  the  foe, 

Poising  his  lifted  lance  in  act  to  throw  : 

The  savage  renders  vain  the  wound  decreed, 

And  springs  impetuous  with  opponent  speed ! 

His  tusks  oblique  he  aim'd,  the  knee  to  gore  ; 

Aslope  they  glanced,  the  sinewy  fibres  tore, 

And  bar'd  the  bone  :  Ulysses  undismay'd, 

Soon  with  redoubled  force  the  wound  repaid  ; 

To  the  right  shoulder-joint  the  spear  applied, 

His  further  flank  with  streaming  purple  dyed  ; 

On  earth  Iw  rush'd  with  agonizing  pain. 

With  joy,  and  vast  surprise,  the  applauding  train 

Viewed  his  enormous  back  extended  on  the  plain." 

The  wild  boar  formed  part  of  the  sports,  pageants,,  and  wild-beast 
shows  and  fights  of  the  Romans.  On  the  return  of  Se\erus  from 
Arabia  and  Egypt,  in  the  tenth  year  of  his  reign,  sixty  wild  boars 
fought  each  other ;  and  in  the  year  that  Gordian  the  First  was  aedile, 
he  entertained  the  people  of  Rome,  at  his  own  expense,  once  a 
month ;  and  "  on  the  sixth  month  there  were  two  hundred  stags, 
thirty  wild  horses,  one  hundred  wild  sheep,  twenty  elks,  one  hundred 
Cyprian  bulls,  three  hundred  red  Barbary  ostriches,  thirty  wild 
asses,  and  one  hundred  and  fifty  wild  boars,"  given  out  to  be  hunted, 
and  became  the  property  of  whosoever  was  fortunate  enough  to 
catch  them. 

During  the  middle  ages,  hunting  the  wild  boar  formed  one  of  the 
chief  amusements  of  the  nobility,  in  most  European  countries.  The 
dogs  provided  for  this  sport  were  of  the  slow,  heavy  kind,  anciently 
known  by  the  name  of  the  "  boarhound."  None  but  the  largest  and 
oldest  boars  were  hunted,  and  these  afforded  a  very  exciting  and 
often  dangerous  sport,  lasting  for  many  hours ;  for  when  first  the 
animal  was  " reared"  he  contented  himself  with  slowly  going  away, 
just  keeping  ahead  of  his  pursuers,  and  apparently  caring  but  little 
for  them,  and  pausing  every  half  mile  to  rest  himself,  and  give  battle 
to  his  assailants,  who  are,  however,  too  wary  to  advance  upon  him 
until  he  becomes  tired ;  then  he  takes  his  final  stand,  and  dogs  and 
3 


60  THE    HOG. 

hunters  close  around  him,  and  a  mortal  combat  ensues,  in  which  the 
beast  eventually  falls  a  victim. 

In  treatises  on  venery  and  hunting,  the  technical  term  for  the  boar 
in  the  first  year  is  "a  pig  of  the  sounder ;"  in  the  second,  "  a  hog ;" 
in  the  third,  "  a  hog  steer ;"  and  in  the  fourth,  "  a  boar." 

Many  of  the  forests  in  our  own  country  were  infested  by  wild 
boars.  The  Anglo-Saxons  seem,  from  the  rude  frescoes  and  prints 
which  are  handed  down  to  us,  to  have  hunted  this  animal  on 
foot  with  no  other  weapon  but  the  boar-spear,  and  attended  by 
powerful  dogs ;  and  apparently  with  such  success,  that  at  the  Nor- 
man conquest  William  the  First  thought  it  necessary  to  make  some 
strict  laws  for  the  preservation  of  this  beast  of  the  chase.  The 
period  for  hunting  the  wild  boar  among  the  Anglo-Saxons  was  in 
September.  Howel  Dha,  the  celebrated  Welsh  lawgiver,  gave  per- 
mission to  his  chief  huntsman  to  chase  the  boar  from  the  middle  of 
November  until  the  end  of  December. 

These  animals  continued  to  linger  in  the  forests  of  England  and 
Scotland  for  several  centuries  after  the  Norman  conquest,  and  many 
tracts  of  land  have  derived  their  name  from  this  occurrence,  while 
instances  of  valor  in  their  destruction  are  recorded  in  the  heraldic 
devices  of  many  a  noble  family.  Fitzstephen,  a  writer  of  the 
twelfth  century,  informs  us  that  wild  boars,  stags,  fallow-deer,  and 
bulls,  abounded  in  the  vast  forests  which  existed  on  the  northern 
side  of  London  in  the  time  of  Henry  II.  The  learned  Whittaker 
informs  us  that  this  animal  roved  at  liberty  over  the  woods  of  the 
parish  of  Manchester  for  many  centuries  after  the  Romans  departed 
from  that  station,  and  hence  the  name  of  Barlow  (6oar-ground)  came 
to  be  assigned  to  a  district  in  the  south-western  portion.  In  Cum- 
berland, the  appellation  "  Wild  Boar's  Fell,"  still  points  out  the 
haunts  of  this  animal.  The  forests  of  Bernwood  in  Buckingham- 
shire, of  Stainmore  in  Westmoreland,  and  those  extensive  woody 
districts  which  once  existed  in  Hertfordshire  and  over  the  Chiltern 
Hills,  were  formerly  peopled  with  wild  boars,  wolves,  stags,  and 
wild  bulls.  Many  ancient  Scottish  writers,  too,  speak  of  the  exist- 
ence of  this  animal  in  the  woods  of  Caledonia.  In  the  county  of 
Fife  there  exists  a  tract  of  country  formerly  called  Muckross  (which 
in  the  Celtic  signifies  Boar's  Promontory)  ;  it  is  said  to  have  been 
famous  as  the  haunt  of  wild  boars.  One  part  of  it  was  called  the 
Boar  Hills,  which  name  has  since  been  corrupted  into  Byro  Hills. 
It  lies  in  the  vicinity  of  St.  Andrew's,  and  in  the  cathedral  church 
of  that  city  two  enormous  boar's  tusks  were  formerly  to  be  seen 
chained  to  the  high  altar,  in  commemoration  of  an  immense  brute 
slain  by  the  inhabitants  after  it  had  long  ravaged  the  surrounding 
country. 

The  precise  period  at  which  the  vild  boar  became  exterminated  in 
England  and  Scotland  cannot  be  correctly  ascertained.  Master  John 


THE  BOARS   HEAD   OF   THE   MIDDLE  AGES.  51 

Gifford  and  William  Twety,  who  lived  in  the  reign  of  Edward  II., 
composed  a  book  on  the  craft  of  hunting,  part  in  verse  and  part  in 
prose,  and  among  the  beasts  mentioned  in  those  hunted  we  find — 

"  To  venery  I  cast  me  fyrst  to  go  : 
Of  whiche  foure  beasts  there  be  ;   that  is  to  say, 
The  hare,  the  herte,  the  wulfhe  the  wild  boor  also." 

In  the  time  of  Charles  I.  they  had  evidently  been  long  extinct,  for 
he  endeavored  to  reintroduce  them,  and  was  at  considerable  ex- 
pense in  order  to  procure  a  wild  boar  and  his  mate  from  Germany. 
These  are  said  to  have  been  turned  into  the  New  Forest,  where 
they  propagated  greatly.  The  breed  commonly  called  "  forest  pigs," 
have  many  of  the  characteristics  of  the  wild  boar. 

Throughout  the  whole  of  England,  the  boar's  head  was  formerly 
a  standard  Christmas  dish,  served  with  many  ceremonies,  and  usher- 
ed in  by  an  ancient  chorus  chanted  by  all  present,  the  words  of  which 
are  preserved  in  "  Ritson's  Ancient  Song : — 

"  The  bore's  heed  in  hand  bring  I, 
With  •'  garlands"  gay  and  rosemary, 
I  pray  you  all  synge  merily, 
Qui  estis  in  convivio. 

The  bore's  heed,  I  understande, 
Is  the  "  chefe"  servyce  in  the  lande 
Loke  where  ever  it  be  foimde, 
Servite  cum  cantico. 

Be  gladde,  lordes,  bothe  more  and  lasse, 
For  this  hath  ordeyned  our  stewarde, 
To  chere  you  all  this  Christmasse, 
The  bore's  heed  with  mustarde.' 

Queen  Margaret,  wife  of  James  IV.  of  Scotland,  "  at  the  first 
course  of  her  wedding  dinner,"  was  served  with  a  "  wyld  bore's 
head  gylt  within  a  fayr  platter." 

King  Henry  II.  himself  bore  this  ancient  dish  into  the  hall,  attend- 
ed  with  trumpeters  and  great  ceremony,  when  his  son  was  crowned. 

The  boar's  head  is  to  the  present  day  placed  upon  the  table  of  the 
Queen's  College,  Oxford,  on  Christmas  day,  but  now  it  is  neatly 
carved  in  wood  instead  of  being  the  actual  head  of  the  animal. 
This  ceremony  is  said  to  have  originated  in  a  tabender  belonging  to 
that  college  having  slain  a  wild  boar  on  Christmas-day,  which  had 
long  infested  the  neighborhood  of  Oxford. 

The  abbot  of  St.  Germain,  in  Yorkshire,  was  bound  to  send 
yearly  a  present  of  a  boar's  head  to  the  hangman,  which  a  monk  was 
obliged  to  carry  on  his  own.  This  rent  was  paid  yearly,  at  the  feast 
of  St.  Vincent,  the  patron  of  the  Benedictines,  and  on  that  day  the 
executioner  took  precedency  il  the  procession  of  monks. 


62  THE  HOG. 

France,  too,  formerly  had  its  trackless  forests,  through  which  the 
grisly  boar  roved  in  savage  grandeur — its  boar  hunts — its  legends 
of  sanguinary  combats  with  these  monsters.  The  "  wild  boar  of 
Ardennes"  has  been  the  theme  of  many  a  lay  and  romance.  But 
civilization,  the  increase  of  population,  and  the  progress  of  agricul- 
ture, have  here,  too,  been  at  work.  Still,  however,  in  the  large  tracts 
of  forest  land  which  yet  exist  and  supply  the  towns  with  fuel,  boars 
are  still  occasionally  to  be  met  with,  although  they  cannot  be  re- 
garded as  so  wild  or  ferocious  as  the  ancient  breed.  At  Chantilly, 
within  forty  miles  of  Paris,  the  late  Prince  of  Conde,  who  died  in 
1830,  kept  a  pack  of  hounds  expressly  for  the  purpose  of  hunting 
the  boar ;  and  some  English  gentlemen  who  visited  the  hunting 
palace  in  the  summer  of  1830,  were  informed  by  the  huntsman  that 
a  few  days  previously  he  had  seen  no  less  than  fourteen  wild  hogs 
at  one  time.  But  the  good  old  "wild  boar  hunt,"  as  tfnce  existed, 
with  all  its  perils  and  excitements,  is  now  extinct  in  France  as  well 
as  in  Germany.  Where  any  traces  of  it  remain,  they  resolve  them- 
selves into  a  battue  of  a  most  harmless  description,  which  takes 
place  in  the  parks  of  the  princes  or  nobles.  The  drivers  beat  up 
the  woods,  the  wild  swine  run  until  they  come  in  contact  with  a 
fence  stretched  across  the  park  for  the  purpose,  and  about  the  centre 
of  which,  at  an  opening  in  the  wood,  a  sort  of  stage  is  raised,  on 
which  the  sportsmen  stand  and  fire  at  the  swine  as  they  run  past. 

Germany  being  a  country  boasting  forests  of  immense  extent, 
was  once  the  most  celebrated  of  all  nations  for  its  wild  boars  and 
boar-hunts ;  and  in  many  parts  wild  hogs  are  still  abundant,  and 
various  methods  are  adopted  to  destroy  them,  as  well  for  amuse- 
ment as  to  turn  their  carcasses  to  account,  which  furnish  those  finely- 
flavored  hams  called  Westphalian. 

The  most  simple  and  effectual  way  is  to  find  out  the  haunts  of  the 
boar,  and  place  a  matchlock  on  rests,  well  charged,  and  concealed  by 
brambles  near  it.  A  rope  is  attached  to  the  trigger,  and  carried 
below  the  rests  to  the  trunk  of  a  tree  at  some  little  distance,  so  as 
to  intersect  the  animal's  path  to  the  forest.  Over  this  the  hog 
inevitably  stumbles,  and  thus  discharges  the  piece,  and  receives  the 
ball  in  the  neck  or  shoulder. 

The  ordinary  method  of  shooting  the  hog  in  Germany  is  as  fol- 
lows : — 

The  huntsman,  ovj'dger,  goes  out  with  an  ugly  but  useful  animal, 
not  unlike  a  shepherd's  dog,  but  smaller,  which  is  in  German  lan- 
guage called  "  a  sow-finder."  The  business  of  this  creature  is  to 
seek  the  hog,  and  so  well  trained  is  he  that  no  other  animal  will  turn 
him  from  that  particular  scent.  On  meeting  with  the  object  of  his 
search  he  gives  tongue  incessantly,  and  with  active  but  cautious  irri- 
tation pursues  the  boar  till  he  is  at  bay  ;  then,  by  continual  teasing, 
he  manages  to  turn  him  sideways  to  his  master,  the  shoulder  afford- 


WILD   BOARS   IN   GERMANY.  53 

ing  the  best  aim  for  readily  disabling  him.  In  this  situation  the  sa- 
gacious dog  contrives  to  keep  him  until  his  master  fires  ;  then  if  the 
wounded  boar  makes  off,  the  boar-hound  (a  species  "of  blood-hound ) 
is  let  loose,  who  pursues  him  for  miles,  giving  tongue,  nor  will  he 
leave  him  even  if  other  boars  come  in  the  way. 

At  the  wild  boar  park  of  the  Emperor  of  Austria,  which  is  at 
Hiittelsdorf,  near  Vienna,  Mr.  Howitt  states  that  he  saw  "  numbers 
of  swine  of  all  ages  and  sizes,  from  the  grisly  old  boar  to  the  sow 
and  her  troop  of  suckling  young  ones.  Here  some  grim  old  fellow 
as  black  as  jet,  or  of  a  sun-burnt  and  savage  gray,  lay  basking  in 
the  deep  grass,  and  at  our  approach  uttered  a  deep  guff,  and  start- 
ing up,  bolted  into  the  wood.  Others  were  lying  their  length  under 
the  broad  trees,  others  scampering  about  with  cocked  tails.  The 
sows  and  their  young  seemed  most  savage  and  impatient  of  our 
presence.  Some  were  tame  enough  to  come  at  the  whistle  of 
the  keeper,  and  scores  ran  voraciously  when  he  shook  one  of  the 
wild  cornel-trees,  which  grew  plentifully  in  the  forest.  This  is  a  tree 
as  large  as  an  apple-tree,  bearing,  in  autumn,  fruit  of  about  the  size 
of  cherries,  and  of  a  coral  red  color.  The  swine  are  very  fond  of 
it,  and  as  the  trees  were  shook,  and  it  pattered  to  the  ground,  they 
came  running  on  all  sides,  and  stood  in  the  thickets  eager  for  our 
departure,  when  they  rushed  ravenously  forward  and  devoured  it." 
"After  all,"  he  continues,  "  the  wild  swine  here  can  present  but  a 
faint  idea  of  what  they  were  in  their  ancient  wilds.  They  are  all  of 
the  true  breed,  and  cannot  for  a  moment  be  confounded  with  the 
tame  variety  ;  there  is  the  tusked  mouth,  the  thick  fore-quarter,  the 
narrow  hind-quarter,  the  mane,  the  coarse  bristles,  the  speed  of  gait, 
indicative  of  the  wild  breed,  but  they  appeared  tame  and  pigmy  in 
comparison  with  the  huge  savage  monsters  bred  in  the  obscure 
recesses  of  deep  forests,  and  unacquainted  with  the  sight  of  man. 
•  "  Hunters  tell  us  that,  notwithstanding  the  orders  of  Government 
to  exterminate  swine  in  the  open  forests,  on  account  of  the  mischief 
they  do  to  cultivated  land,  there  are  numbers  in  the  forests  in  Han 
over  and  Westphalia,  huge,  gaunt,  and  ferocious  as  ever.  These 
will  snuff  the  most  distant  approach  of  danger,  and  with  terrific 
noises  rush  into  the  densest  woods ;  or  surrounding  a  solitary  and 
unarmed  individual,  especially  a  woman  or  a  child,  will  scour  round 
and  round  them,  coming  nearer  and  nearer  at  every  circle,  until  at 
last,  bursting  in  upon  them,  they  tear  them  limb  from  limb  and  de- 
vour them.  Tame  swine,  which  are  herded  in  these  forests  and  be- 
come mixed  in  breed  with  the  wild,  acquire  the  same  blood-thirsty 
propensities,  and  will,  in  their  herds,  surround  and  devour  persons  in 
a  similar  manner." 

The  wild  breed  abound  in  Upper  Austria,  on  the  Styrian  Alps, 
and  in  many  parts  of  Hungary.  In  the  latter  country,  a  recent 
author  speaking  of  them,  says  :  "  These  animals  have  lost  some  little 


54  THE  HOG. 

of  their  natural  ferocity,  but  they  still  fly  at  the  approach  of  stran 
gers,  and  in  their  form  and  habits  preserve  all  the  characteristics  of 
the  true  wild  boar,  from  which  stock  they  are  descended  without  in- 
termixture  of  any  other  breed.  I  am  told,  too,  that  their  flesh  has 
all  the  peculiar  flavor  of  the  wild  boar.  This  animal,  in  a  completely 
savage  state,  is  now  becoming  very  scarce  in  Hungary,  and  is  only 
met  with  in  the  most  secluded  forests,  and  in  the  recesses  of  the  Car- 
pathian mountains. 

The  forests  of  Poland,  Spain,  Russia,  and  Sweden,  still  contain 
animals  of  the  wild  boar  tribe,  and  the  inhabitants  of  these  countries 
hunt  them  with  hounds,  or  attack  them  with  fire-arms,  or  with  the 
proper  boar-spear. 

But  the  most  exciting  accounts  we  now  have  of  this  sport  are  fur- 
nished by  our  countrymen  in  the  East,  who  diversify  their  other 
hunts  and  field-sports  by  occasionally  chasing  the  wild  hog.  Cap- 
tain Williamson,  in  his  graphic  volume,  gives  some  very  animated 
accounts  of  the  perils  of  this  chase,  as  does  also  Mr.  Johnston  ;  and 
if  any  thing  could  reconcile  us  to  the  pursuing,  tormenting,  and  shed- 
ding the  blood  of  an  animal  who  only  puts  forth  his  strength  in  self- 
defence,  it  would  be  the  bravery  and  presence  of  mind  exhibited  by 
some  of  the  huntsmen.  One  or  two  quotations  will  illustrate  the 
habits  of  the  wild  hogs  of  India,  as  well  as  the  mode  in  which  they 
are  hunted. 

"  The  pace  and  powers  of  *  the  wild  hog'  are  not  to  be  estimated 
by  any  comparison  with  those  of  the  tame  one.  Persons  unac- 
quainted with  the  vigor  and  speed  of  the  jungle  hog  will  be  sur- 
prised to  learn  that  it  requires  a  good  horse  to  keep  near  a  moder- 
ately-sized hog,  and  that  it  is  by  no  means  uncommon  to  see  what 
is  considered  as  a  moderately-sized  animal  overthrow  many  horses  in 
succession.  The  fact  is,  that  from  April  to  November,  during  which 
period  the  canes  and  corn  are  off  the  grounds,  the  wild  hogs  are 
compelled  to  wander  from  the  copses  and  long  grass  jungles  in  which 
they  take  refuge,  to  greater  distances,  in  search  of  food,  by  which 
means  they  are  not  only  kept  low  in  flesh,  but,  from  their  daily 
exercises,  get  confirmed  in  good  wind,  and  seem  rather  to  attack 
the  hunter  than  to  run  away ;  and  this  is  not  merely  during  the 
space  of  a  few  hundred  yards,  but  for  a  considerable  distance.  T 
recollect  being  one  of  four  well-mounted  riders,  who  were  completely 
distanced  in  a  chase  of  about  three  miles. 

"  In  crossing  the  country  early  in  June,  about  sunrise,  we  saw  at 
a  considerable  distance  a  hog  trotting  over  a  plain  to  his  cover, 
which  was  a  large  extent  of  brambles  and  copse,  from  which  we 
could  not  hope  to  drive  him.  As  there  appeared  no  chance  of  over 
taking  him,  we  agreed  to  let  him  proceed  unmolested,  and  to  be  at 
the  place  whence  he  had  come  by  daybreak  on  the  next  morning. 
We  accordingly  were  up  early  on  the  following  morning,  anticipa- 


HUNTING  THE  WILD  HOG  IN  INDIA-  65 

ting  the  pleasure  of  being  at  his  heels,  but  on  arriving  at  the  spot 
in  which  we  had  observed  him  on  the  preceding  day  we  found  him 
nearer  to  his  cover  than  before. 

"  Knowing  that  when  hogs  take  the  alarm  they  are  apt  to  change 
their  route  and  their  hours,  we  were  not  surprised  at  this  manoeuv- 
ring. We  were  still  earlier  on  the  third  morning,  when  we  took 
our  positions  nearer  his  place  of  nightly  resort,  and  had  the  satis- 
faction to  find  that  we  were  in  time  to  bear  him  company  home- 
ward. Here,  however,  some  delay  took  place.  The  hog  on  his 
first  breaking  from  the  small  jungle  where  we  awaited  him,  and 
through  which  he  had  to  pass,  after  glutting  himself  in  a  swamp 
among  some  rye,  sown  extremely  thick  for  transplanting,  found  that 
he  was  watched.  He,  therefore,  after  trotting  out  a  hundred  yards, 
gave  a  sort  of  snort  and  returned.  This  was  precisely  what  we 
wished  for. 

"  It  was  not  yet  day,  and  the  desire  to  intercept  our  prey  had 
made  us  push  forward  so  as  to  place  our  people  far  behind.  They, 
however,  came  up  to  the  number  of  a  hundred,  and  after  beating 
the  cover  for  a  short  time,  our  friend  took  fairly  to  the  plain. 

"As  we  were  careful  not  to  dispirit,  and  had  cautiously  kept  from 
that  side  on  which  we  wished  him  to  bolt,  he  gained  upon  us  a  little. 
Pie  had  to  go  at  least  three  miles,  and  the  whole  of  the  plain  was 
laid  out  in  paddy,  or  rice  fields. 

"  The  hog  kept  a-head  the  whole  way,  so  that  there  was  no  possi- 
bility of  our  throwing  a  distant  spear. 

"  The  swine  generally  establish  themselves  in  cane  or  grain  plan- 
tations, when  these  are  high  and  afford  good  shelter,  and  here  they 
live  for  several  months ;  but  about  the  middle  of  March,  or,  at  the 
latest,  the  beginning  of  April,  they  are  obliged  to  shift  their  quar 
ters,  as  the  cane  and  grains  are  generally  cut  about  that  time. 

"  Hogs  are  often  found  in  March  with  three  or  four  inches  of  fat 
on  the  chines  and  shoulders. 

"  It  usually  requires  a  great  number  of  persons  to  drive  the  hogs 
out  of  the  sugar-canes,  on  account  of  their  extent. 

"  The  hog,  being  forced  from  his  covert,  is  crowded  upon  by 
several  horsemen  with  spears,  which  they  use  in  the  manner  of  jave- 
lins. They  pursue  the  animal  at  speed  as  he  makes  his  way  to  the 
nearest  covert,  darting  their  spears  into  his  body  as  they  come  up 
to  him. 

"  Many  may  be  seen  with  scars,  evidently  the  result  of  wounds 
received  on  former  occasions,  and  such  are  extremely  difficult  to 
deal  with.  They  will  break  out  of  the  line  repeatedly,  dash  at  all 
they  meet  with,  and  eventually  create  such  terror  as  effectually  to 
discourage  the  beaters,  who  thence  get  into  groups,  and,  though  they 
continue  their  vociferation,  act  so  timorously  as  to  render  it  expedi- 
ent to  withdraw  them  for  the  purpose  of  trying  a  fresh  cover.  It  is 


66  THE  HOG. 

very  common  to  see  a  plough  at  work  at  the  very  edge  ( f  the  canes 
where  the  villagers  are  beating  for  hogs ;  and  as  the  bullocks  em- 
ployed are  extremely  skittish  and  wild,  it  often  happens  that  they 
take  fright  and  run  oft*  with  the  plough,  .which  frequently  is  broken 
to  pieces.  The  ploughman,  alarmed  equally  with  his  cattle,  also 
takes  to  flight,  as  do  all  the  peasants  who  may  see  the  bristling  ani- 
mal galloping  from  his  haunt." 

Mr.  Johnson  describes  another  scene  eminently  charisteristic  of 
the  desperate  fierceness  and  strength  of  the  wild  hog.  He  was  one 
of  a  party  of  eight  persons,  on  a  sporting  excursion  near  Patna  on 
the  banks  of  the  Soane.  Eeturning  one  morning  from  shooting, 
they  met  with  a  very  large  boar,  which  they  did  not  fire  at  or  mo- 
lest, as,  although  several  of  the  party  were  fond  of  hunting,  they 
had  no  spears  with  them.  The  next  morning  they  all  sallied  forth 
in  search  of  him,  and  just  as  they  had  arrived  at  the  spot  where 
they  had  seen  him  the  day  before,  they  discovered  him  at  some  dis- 
tance galloping  off  towards  a  grass  jungle  on  the  banks  of  the  river. 
They  pressed  their  horses  as  fast  as  possible,  and  were  nearly  up 
with  him  when  he  disappeared  all  at  once. 

The  horses  were  then  nearly  at  their  full  speed,  and  four  of  them 
could  not  be  pulled  up  in  time  to  prevent  their  going  into  a  deep 
branch  of  the  river,  the  banks  of  which  were  at  least  fourteen  or 
fifteen  feet  high.  Happily,  there  was  no  water  in,  or  any  thing  but 
fine  sand,  and  no  person  was  hurt.  One  of  the  horses,  that  was  ex- 
ceedingly vicious,  got  loose,  attacked  the  others,  and  obliged  them 
and  all  the  rest,  to  recede. 

A  few  days  afterwards  they  went  again,  early  in  the  morning,  in 
pursuit  of  the  same  hog,  and  found  him  farther  off  from  the  grass 
jungle,  in  a  rhur-field,  from  which  with  much  difficulty  they  drove 
him  into  a  plain,  where  he  stood  at  bay  challenging  the  whole  party, 
and  boldly  charging  every  horse  that  came  within  fifty  yards  of  him, 
grunting  loudly  as  he  advanced. 

"  The  horse  I  rode,"  says  Mr  Johnston,  "  would  not  go  near  him, 
and  when  I  was  at  considerable  distance  off,  he  charged  another 
horse  with  such  ferocity  that  mine  reared  and  plunged  in  so  violent 
a  manner  as  to  throw  me  off.  Two  or  three  others  were  dismounted 
at  nearly  the  same  time ;  and  though  there  were  many  horses  pre- 
sent that  had  been  long  accustomed  to  the  sport,  not  one  of  them 
would  stand  his  charges.  He  fairly  drove  the  whole  party  off  the 
field,  and  gently  trotted  on  to  the  grass  jungle,  foaming  and  grind- 
ing his  tusks." 

In  Morocco  the  wild  boar  is  the  most  common  and  prolific  of 
all  the  ferocious  animals  found  there ;  the  sow  produces  several 
large  litters  in  the  year ;  and  were  it  not  that  the  young  form  the 
favorite  food  of  the  lion,  the  country  would  be  overrun  with  these 
animals. 


ALTERATIONS  PRODUDED  BY  DOMESTICATION.  57 

In  the  woods  of  South  America  there  are  abundance  of  vild 
swine,  possessing  all  the  ferocity  of  the  boar.  The  following  fear- 
ful scene  occurred  in  Columbia.  A  party  of  six  hunters  had  gone 
out  on  a  sporting  expedition.  They  fell  in  with  a  herd  of  swine, 
upon  which  four  of  them,  less  experienced  than  the  others,  immedi- 
ately fired,  and  the  swine  advanced  fiercely  to  attack  them.  The 
four  young  men,  intimidated,  took  to  flight  without  warning  their 
companions,  or  considering  the  danger  to  which  they  were  exposed. 
They  climbed  up  into  some  trees,  but  the  other  two  were  quickly 
surrounded  by  the  swine.  They  made  a  long  and  desperate  defence 
with  their  lances,  but  were  at  length  dragged  down.  One  of  them 
was  torn  to  pieces,  and  the  other  dreadfully  lacerated,  and  left  for 
dead  by  the  swine,  who  now  watched  the  four  fugitives  in  the  trees 
until  sunset.  Then,  probably  yielding  to  the  calls  of  nature,  they 
retired.  The  surviving  hunters  then  came  down  and  assisted  their 
wounded  companion  into  the  canoe,  and  carried  off  the  remains  of 
the  unfortunate  man  who  had  fallen  in  this  horrible  encounter.  (Coch- 
rane's  Columbia,  vol.  i.) 

We  have  entered  thus  much  at  length  into  the  history  of  the  wild 
boar,  because  no  one  can  for  a  moment  doubt  that  it  is  the  parent 
stock  from  which  the  domesticated  breeds  of  swine  originally  sprung ; 
the  well-known  fact  that  all  kinds  breed  with  the  boar,  is  in  itself  a 
sufficient  testimony  ;  but  to  this  we  can  add  that  the  period  of  ges- 
tation is  the  same  in  the  wild  and  tame  sow ;  the  anatomical 
structure  is  identical ;  the  general  form  bears  the  same  characters ; 
and  the  habits,  so  far  as  they  are  not  altered  by  domestication,  re- 
main the  same. 

Where  individuals  of  the  pure,  wild  race,  have  been  caught  young 
and  subjected  to  the  same  treatment  as  a  domestic  pig,  their  fierce- 
ness has  disappeared,  they  have  become  more  social  and  less  noctural 
in  their  habits,  lost  their  activity,  and  lived  more  to  eat.  In  the  course 
of  one  or  two  generations  even  the  form  undergoes  certain  modifi- 
cations ;  the  body  becomes  larger  and  heavier ;  the  legs  shorter  and 
less  adapted  for  exercise ;  the  formidable  tusks  of  the  boar,  being  no 
longer  needed  as  weapons  of  defence,  disappear  ;  the  shape  of  the 
head  and  neck  alters ;  and  in  character  as  well  as  in  form,  the  ani- 
mal adapts  itself  to  its  position.  Nor  does  it  appear  that  a  return 
to  their  native  wilds  restores  to  them  their  original  appearance ;  for, 
in  whatever  country  pigs  have  escaped  from  the  control  of  man,  and 
bred  in  the  woods  and  wildernesses,  there  does  not  appear  to  be  a 
single  instance  recorded  by  any  naturalist  in  which  they  have  re- 
sumed the  habits  and  form  of  the  wild  boar.  They  become  fierce, 
wild,  gaunt,  and  grisly,  and  live  upon  roots  and  fruits ;  but  they  are 
still  merely  degenerated  swine,  and  they  still  associate  together  in 
herds,  nor  "  walk  the  glade  in  savage  solitary  grandeur"  like  their 
grim  ancestors. 

3* 


68  THE  HOG. 

We  shall  now  proceed  to  notice  some  of  the  accounts  given  of 
the  swine  found  in  various  parts  of  the  world,  previous  to  entering 
upon  a  consideration  of  the  breeds  peculiar  to  our  own  country. 


CHAPTER  Y. 

r|Mi  0    ff 

Swine  in  America— In  large  towns — Original  breed— Improved  breed— Swine  in  Canada— In 
Ohio— In  Mexico— Hebrides— In  Columbia— In  the  South  Sea  Islands — Swine  in  Asia— in  Chi- 
na  and  Japan — Ceylon — Hindustan — Turkey  and  Arabia — Swine  in  Africa — Guinea — New 
Holland — Caffraria — Swine  in  Europe — In  Malta — In  Italy — In  Germany — In  Hungary — In 
Russia — In  Sweden— In  France — Swine  indigenous  to  the  Channel  Island* — In  Jersey — In 
Guernsey— In  Sark— In  Alderney— The  Isle  of  Man— In  the  Hebrides— In  the  Shetland  Isles 
—In  the  Orkneys. 

AMERICA. 

THROUGHOUT  the  whole  of  this  quarter  of  the  globe  swine  appear 
to  abound.  They  are  not,  however,  indigenous,  but  were  doubtless 
originally  carried  thither  by  the  early  English  settlers,  and  the  breed 
thus  introduced  still  may  be  distinguished  by  the  traces  they  retain 
of  their  parent  stock  ;  but  France,  Spain,  and,  during  the  slave-trade, 
Africa,  have  also  combined  to  supply  America  with  varieties  of  this 
animal,  so  useful  to  the  settler  in  the  wilds  and  woods,  and  so  much 
esteemed  throughout  the  whole  of  the  country,  as  furnishing  a 
valuable  article  of  food. 

"  It  appears  that  the  American  zoologists  describe  no  fewer  than 
six  species  of  the  hog,  some  of  them  so  entirely  distinct  in  their 
general  habits  and  appearance  as  to  prevent  their  ever  breeding  or 
even  associating  together.  Five  of  these  species  need  only  be  re- 
garded as  objects  of  curiosity ;  the  sixth  is  the  common  wild  hog  of 
the  eastern  continent,  which  we  will  describe,  in  order  to  illustrate 
the  difference  between  a  good  and  a  bad  animal  of  the  same  variety; 
they  have  long-peaked  snouts,  coarse  heads,  thin  chests,  narrow 
shoulders,  sharp  backs,  slab  sides,  meagre,  diminutive  hams,  big 
legs,  clumped  feet,  the  hide  of  a  rhinoceros,  the  hair  and  bristles  of 
a  porcupine,  and  as  thick  and  shaggy  as  a  bear's;  they  have  no 
capacity  for  digesting  and  concocting  their  food  in  the  stomach  for 
nourishment ;  there  is  nothing  but  offal,  bones,  rind,  bristles,  and 
hair,  with  a  narrow  streak  of  gristle  underneath,  and  a  still  narrower 
line  of  lean,  as  tough  and  as  rank  as  white  leather — their  snouts 
against  every  man,  and  every  man's  hand  against  them.  No  rea- 
sonable fence  can  stop  them,  but,  ever  restive  and  uneasy,  they  rove 


SWINE  IN   AMEK1CA.  59 

about  seeking  for  plunder ;  swilling,  grunting,  rooting,  pawing,  al- 
ways in  mischief  and  always  destroying.  The  more  a  man  posses- 
es  of  such  stock  the  worse  he  is  off;  and  he  had  far  better  sell  his 
produce  at  any  price,  than  to  put  it  into  such  totally  worthless  crea- 
tures."— A.  B.  Allen. 

Stuart  says — "  Hogs  are  universal  in  this  part  of  the  world,  and 
are  well  and  frequently  fed.  At  first  they  are  kept  in  the  woods, 
and  nurtured  on  chestnuts  and  apples ;  before  being  killed,  they 
have  good  rations  of  Indian  corn  or  barley-meal,  and  in  many  cases 
are  likewise  well  supplied  with  steamed  food.  In  South  Carolina 
the  climate  is  so  mild  that  they  are  allowed  to  wander  about  the 
woods  during  the  whole  year,  feeding  on  the  nuts,  acorns,  &c.,  which 
are  there  so  abundant,  and  occasionally  eating  the  fallen  fruit  they 
meet  with.  They  are  very  useful  in  destroying  snakes." — Stuart's 
North  America. 

In  large  towns,  too,  they  are  apparently  as  much  at  home  and  as 
common  as  in  the  forests,  pacing  the  streets,  instead  of  the  glades, 
and  feeding  upon  the  offal  and  filth  rejected  by  man,  instead  of  the 
fresh  and  wholesome  fruits  supplied  by  the  hand  of  nature.  One 
of  our  countrymen  gives  an  amusing  graphic  account  of  the  swinish 
multitude,  in  some  of  the  large  towns  through  which  he  passed. 

"We  are  going  to  cross  here.  Take  care  of  the  pigs.  Two 
portly  sows  are  trotting  up  behind  this  carriage,  and  a  select  party 
of  half-a-dozen  gentlemen  hogs  have  just  now  turned  the  corner. 
Here  is  a  solitary  swine,  lounging  homewards  by  himself;  he  has 
only  one  ear,  having  parted  with  the  other  to  vagrant  dogs  in  the 
course  of  his  city  rambles ;  but  he  gets  on  very  well  without  it, 
and  leads  a  roving,  gentlemanly,  vagabond  kind  of  a  life,  somewhat 
answering  to  that  of  our  clubmen  at  home.  He  leaves  his  lodgings 
every  morning  at  a  certain  hour,  throws  himself  upon  the  town,  gets 
through  his  day  in  some  manner  quite  satisfactory  to  himself,  and 
regularly  appears  at  the  door  of  his  own  house  again  at  night,  like 
the  mysterious  master  of  Gil  Bias ;  he  is  a  free-and-easy,  careless, 
indifferent  kind  of  pig,  having  a  very  large  acquaintance  among 
other  pigs  of  the  same  character,  whom  he  rather  knows  by  sight 
than  conversation,  as  he  seldom  troubles  himself  to  stop  and  ex- 
change civilities,  but  goes  grunting  down  the  kennel,  turning  up  the 
news  and  small-talk  of  the  city,  in  the  shape  of  cabbage-stalks  and 
offal,  and  bearing  no  tails  but  his  own,  which  is  a  very  short  one, 
for  his  old  enemies  the  dogs  have  been  at  that  too,  and  have  left 
him  hardly  enough  to  swear  by  ;  he  is  in  every  respect  a  republi- 
can pig,  going  wherever  he  pleases,  and  mingling  with  the  best 
society,  on  an  equal,  if  not  superior  footing,  for  every  one  makes 
way  when  he  appears,  and  the  haughtiest  give  him  the  wall  if  he 
prefer  it ;  he  is  a  great  philosopher,  and  seldom  moved  unless  by 
the  dogs  before-mentioned ;  sometimes,  indeed,  you  may  see  hit 


60  THE    HOG. 

small  eye  twinkling  on  a  slaughtered  friend,  whose  carcass  gar 
nishes  a  butcher's  door-post,  but  he  grunts  out  "  Such  is  life ;  all 
flesh  is  pork !"  buries  his  nose  in  the  mire  again,  and  waddles 
down  the  gutter,  comforting  himself  with  the  reflection  that  there 
is  one  snout  the  less  to  anticipate  stray  cabbage-stalks,  at  any  rate. 

"  They  are  the  city  scavengers,  these  pigs,  ugly  brutes  they  are ; 
having  for  the  most  part  scanty  brown  backs,  like  the  lids  of  old 
horse-hair  trunks,  spotted  with  unwholesome  black  blotches ;  they 
have  long,  gaunt  legs  too,  and  such  peaked  snouts  that  if  one  of  them 
could  be  persuaded,  to  sit  for  his  profile,  nobody  would  recognize  it 
for  a  pig's  likeness ;  they  are  never  attended  upon,  or  fed,  or  driven, 
or  caught,  but  are  thrown  upon  their  own  resources  in  early  life, 
and  become  preternatural ly  knowing  in  consequence;  every  pig 
knows  where  he  lives  much  better  than  any  body  could  tell  him. 
At  this  hour,  just  as  evening  is  closing  in,  you  will  see  them  roam- 
ing towards  bed  by  scores,  eating  their  way  to  the  last.  Occasion- 
ally some  youth  among  them  who  has  overeaten  himself,  or  has 
been  worried  by  dogs,  trots  shrinkingly  homeward,  like  a  prodigal 
son  ;  but  this  is  a  rare  case ;  perfect  self-possession  and  self-reliance, 
and  immovable  composure,  being  their  foremost  attributes.  (Dick- 
ens' American  Notes.) 

And  Mrs.  Trollope  piteously  exclaims — "  I  am  sure  I  should  have 
liked  Cincinnati  much  better  if  the  people  had  not  dealt  so  very 
largely  in  hogs !  The  immense  quantity  of  business  done  in  this 
line  would  hardly  be  believed  by  those  who  had  not  witnessed  it. 
I  never  saw  a  newspaper  without  remarking  such  advertisements  as 
the  following :  "  Wanted  immediately,  4000  fat  hogs ;"  "  For  sale, 
2000  barrels  of  prime  pork."  But  the  annoyance  came  nearer 
than  this.  If  I  determined  upon  a  walk  up  Main  Street,  the  chances 
were  five  hundred  to  one  against  my  reaching  the  shady  side  with- 
out brushing  by  a  snout  or  two,  fresh  dripping  from  the  kennel. 
When  we  had  screwed  up  our  courage  to  the  enterprise  of  mount- 
ing a  certain  noble-looking  sugar-loaf  hill,  that  promised  pure  air 
and  a  fine  view,  we  found  the  brook  we  had  to  cross  at  its  foot,  red 
with  the  blood  from  a  pig  slaughter-house ;  while  our  noses,  instead 
of  meeting  "  the  thyme  that  loves  the  green  hill's  breast,"  were 
greeted  by  odors  that  I  will  not  describe,  and  which  I  heartily  hope 
my  readers  cannot  imagine;  our  feet,  that  on  leaving  the  city  had 
expected  to  press  the  flowery  sod,  literally  got  entangled  in  pigs' 
tails  and  jaw-bones  ;  and  thus  the  prettiest  walk  in  the  neighborhood 
was  interdicted  for  ever." 

The  common  breed  may  for  the  most  part  be  described  as  large, 
rough,  long-nosed,  big-boned,  thin-backed,  slab-sided,  long-legged, 
ravenous,  ugly  animals.  But  latterly  great  improvements  have  been 
made  in  it  by  judicious  crossing  with  the  Chinese  and  Berkshire  pigs, 
by  crossing  these  two  breeds  with  each  other,  and  by  careful  breed 
ing  from  these  two  stocks  without  intermixture. 


SWINE  IN  AMERICA.  61 

Mr.  Bement  of  Albany,  who  has  devoted  great  attention  to  the 
rearing  and  breeding  of  swine,  speaks  in  the  highest  terms  of  praise 
of  the  cross  between  the  pure  Chinese  breed  and  the  original  breed 
of  the  country,  or,  "  land-shads"  as  he  termed  them.  He  says  that 
the  Chinese  breed  was  first  introduced  about  twenty  years  ago,  but 
that  from  their  size,  seldom  attaining  more  than  250  Ibs.,  and  from 
their  delicacy,  they  were  not  adapted  for  "  a  farmer's  hog."  But 
with  the  just-mentioned  cross  they  become  all  that  could  be  wished. 
He  thus  describes  the  "  improved  China  hogs :" — "  In  color  they  are 
various — white,  black  and  white,  spotted,  and  gray  and  white ;  they 
are  longer  in  the  body  than  the  pure  Chinese  breed ;  small  in  the 
head  and  legs;  broad  in  the  back;  round  in  the  body  ;  the  •hams 
well  let  down ;  skin  thin ;  and  flesh  delicate  and  finely  flavored. 
They  are  easy  keepers,  small  consumers,  quiet  in  disposition,  not 
given  to  roam  or  commit  depredations  ;  and  when  in  condition  may 
be  maintained  so  upon  grass  only." — The  Cultivator,  vol.  ii. 

The  best  Berkshire  breeds,  as  imported  into  America,  vary  some- 
what in  size  and  appearance ;  that  from  which  most  of  the  present 
stock  have  been  raised  was  taken  to  America  in  1832.  This  breed 
has  spread  rapidly  over  the  country,  and  fetches  a  high  price  from 
its  peculiar  aptitude  to  fatten.  Its  prevailing  characteristics  are — a 
fine  head,  a  dished  face,  rather  upright  ears,  close  shoulders  and  hams, 
and  a  short  body ;  animals  of  this  kind  mature  very  rapidly,  and 
produce  most  delicate  meat. 

There  are  now  various  improved  breeds,  known  for  the  most  part 
under  the  names  of  the  improvers,  or  of  the  localities  in  which  they 
are  found,  arising  from  crosses  of  the  original  American  hog  with 
the  above-mentioned  breeds,  or  others  which  may  have  been  im- 
ported from  England  and  other  countries.  The  establishment  of 
agricultural  societies  and  cattle-shows,  has  contributed  in  the  New  as 
well  as  in  the  Old  World  to  direct  the  attention  of  farmers  and 
breeders  to  all  kinds  of  domesticated  animals,  and  the  advantages 
which  have  been  obtained  in  swine  alone  are  sufficiently  great  to 
prove  incentives  to  increased  care  and  study  on  the  all-important 
principles  of  breeding. 

Head,  in  his  journey  from  Halifax  to  Upper  Canada,  again  and 
again  alludes  to  the  fine  pigs  he  saw,  and  the  delicious  pork  with 
which  he  was  regaled  by  the  settlers  he  met  with  in  various  parts, 
He  says  that  bears  are  very  fond  of  pork,  for  they  often  get  into  the 
farm-yards  and  carry  off  a  squeaking,  struggling  victim  to  regale 
themselves  upon 


INDIANA. 


In  Indiana  the  breed  of  swine  furnishes  the  principal  supply  for 
food  and  exportation;  great  quantities  of  pork  being  sent  to  New 
Orleans,  Great-  numbers  of  swine  roam  in  the  woods  of  Indiana,  far 


62  THE  HOG. 

from,  all  human  dwellings,  where  they  grow  very  fat  upon  the  abun- 
dance of  oak  and  beech  mast.  In  some  parts  where  great  numbers 
of  swine  are  allowed  to  run  almost  wild,  a  triangular  yoke  is  fixed 
round  their  necks  to  prevent  them  from  breaking  through  fences. 
— Weld's  Travels  in  North  America.  They  are  of  a  reddish-brown 
color,  with  round  black  spots ;  there  are  some  quite  wild,  which  any 
body  is  at  liberty  to  shoot.  These  animals  are  never  housed,  even 
in  the  vicinity  of  Harmony.  In  the  depth  of  winter  the  young  ones 
often  perish  with  cold,  or  are  devoured  by  the  mothers ;  and  then 
dead  swine  will  be  seen  lying  about  in  all  directions,  some  partly 
devoured  by  others.  The  negligence  and  want  of  feeling  with  which 
these  animals  are  treated  is  very  great,  and  consequently  they  can 
never  be  expected  to  prosper,  or  yield  those  advantages  which  might 
be  derived  from  them  under  proper  treatment. 


OHIO. 

Professor  Silliman,  in  his  account  of  Ohio,  says  that  large  num- 
bers of  hogs  pass  the  winter  in  the  woods  quite  independent  of  the 
assistance  of  man,  subsisting  on  nuts  and  acorns.  Single  individuals 
of  these  are  occasionally  destroyed  by  bears  and  wolves,  but  a  herd 
of  ten  or  twenty  hogs  are  more  than  a  match  for  a  wolf  or  panther. 
Indeed  an  old  hunter  once  saw  a  panther  spring  from  a  tree  into  a 
drove  of  wood  hogs,  and  scarcely  had  he  touched  the  ground  than 
the  larger  ones  fell  upon  him  with  their  tusks  and  the  weight  of  their 
bodies,  and  killed  and  tore  him  in  pieces  in  a  few  moments.  Arcana 
of  Science,  1828. 

MEXICO. 

In  Mexico  fine  breeds  of  pigs  are  kept  by  many  persons  of  wealth 
as  an  article  of  trade  as  well  as  of  consumption,  and  the  greatest 
possible  care  and  attention  are  paid  to  the  cleanliness  and  comfort  of 
these  animals ;  nay,  more,  the  Mexican  pigs  may  be  said  to  possess 
the  luxuries  of  life,  for  two  Indian  lads  are  kept  to  sing  the  grunting 
herd  to  sleep.  These  boys  are  chosen  for  the  strength  of  their  lungs 
and  their  taste  and  judgment  in  delightir.g  the  ears  and  lulling  the 
senses  of  the  porcine  harmonists,  and  they  take  it  by  turns  to  chant 
throughout  the  whole  day  ;  nor  does  their  performance  appear  to  be 
unappreciated  by  their  strange  audience,  but  rather  to  afford  exceed- 
ing delight  and  gratification. 

HEBRIDES. 

The  New  Hebrides,  the  Marquesas,  the  Friendly  and  Society 
Islanls,  and  New  Guinea,  abound  with  a  breed  of  swine  closeh 
resembling  the  Chinese,  and  these  being  almosfc  the  only  domestic 


SWINE  IN  COLUMBIA.  63 

animals  which  the  natives  of  these  islands  posses-*,  they  accordingly 
receive  great  care  and  attention.  This  race  is  small,  the  belly 
hanging,  the  legs  short,  the  tail  almost  imperceptible,  and  the  color 
gray.  Its  flesh  is  very  white  and  delicate. 

COLUMBIA. 

In  the  woods  of  Columbia  there  are  numbers  of  swine,  but  for 
tne  most  part  wild ;  and  the  flesh  of  these  wild  ones  is  far  ^uperior 
to  that  of  the  few  that  are  domesticated,  as  that  of  the  latter,  from 
the  animals  being  often  fed  on  stale  fish  and  all  kinds  of  abomina- 
tions, acquires  a  rancid  and  unpleasant  flavor.  Some  of  the  settlers 
chiefly  live  by  the  sale  of  the  flesh  of  wild  swine,  which  they  obtain 
by  hunting,  and  then  cure  or  dry  it. 

Experienced  hunters  will  kill  their  fourteen  or  fifteen  swine  a-day, 
and  a  well-trained  dog  will  often  destroy  two  or  three  of  these  ani- 
mals a-day  by  himself  The  mode  of  proceeding  is  for  the  dog  to 
keep  the  hog  at  bay  while  the  hunter  creeps  up,  and  watching  his 
opportunity,  throws  his  lance  with  such  vigor  as  to  pin  the  animal 
to  the  ground.  This  done,  he  rushes  upon  him,  seizes  the  lance 
firmly  with  one  hand,  and  with  the  other  dispatches  the  game  with 
his  knife. 

In  Paraguay  and  Brazil,  swine  are  likewise  abundant,  and  for  the 
most  part  wild. 

The  Falkland  Islands  were  stocked  with  swine  by  the  French  and 
Spaniards,  but  little,  if  any,  trace  of  the  original  breeds  can  now  be 
discovered  in  the  fierce,  bristly,  tusked  animals  now  found  there, 
some  of  the  older  ones  of  which  rival  the  grisly  boar  in  appearance 
and  wildness. 

SOUTH-SEA   ISLANDS. 

The  South-Sea  Islands,  on  their  discovery  by  Europeans,  were 
found  to  be  well  stocked  with  a  small,  black,  short-legged  hog  ;  the 
traditionary  belief  of  the  natives  was,  that  these  animals  were  as 
anciently  descended  as  themselves.  The  hog,  in  fact,  is  in  these 
islands  the  principal  quadruped,  and  is  of  all  others  the  most  care- 
fully cultivated.  The  bread-fruit  tree,  either  in  the  form  of  a  sour 
paste  or  in  its  natural  condition,  constitutes  its  favorite  food,  and 
its  additional  choice  of  yams,  eddoes,  and  other  nutritive  vegetables, 
renders  its  flesh  most  juicy  and  delicious ;  its  fat,  though  rich,  being 
at  the  same  time  (so  says  Foster)  not  less  delicate  and  agreeable 
than  the  finest  butter.  Before  our  missionary  labors  had  proved  so 
successful  in  these  once  benighted  regions,  by  substituting  the  mild 
spirit  of  Christianity  for  the  sanguinary  forms  of  a  delusive  and 
degrading  worship,  the  Otaheitans  and  other  South-Sea  Islandew 


64  THE   HOG. 

were  in  the  habit  of  presenting  roasted  pigs  at  the  morais,  as  the 
most  sa  rory  and  acceptable  offering  to  their  deities  which  they  could 
bestow. 

ASIA. 

Throughout  the  greater  part  of  Asia,  swine  are  to  be  found.  The 
extensive  and  magnificent  forests  which  cover  much  of  the  Birmese 
Empire,  Siam,  Cochin  China,  and  other  kingdoms  of  the  south-east, 
abound  with  hogs,  as  well  as  other  pachydermatous  animals. 

Here  are  found  the  celebrated  Siamese  or  Chinese  breed,  so  much 
esteemed  throughout  all  parts  of  the  world  to  which  they  have  been 
exported :  distinguished  for  their  small  size,  fine  head  and  snout, 
compact  deep  carcass,  large  hams  and  shoulders,  short  limbs,  delicate 
feet,  fine  hair  and  skin,  aptitude  to  fatten  and  grow,  and  the  sweet, 
delicate  meat  they  yield. 

CHINA    AND    JAPAN. 

The  Chinese  and  Japanese  are  great  pig-breeders,  and  make  the 
art  of  crossing,  breeding,  and  rearing  swine,  which  furnishes  them 
with  their  principal  animal  food,  an  object  of  peculiar  attention  and 
study.  Merchants  who  have  resided  for  some  time  in  China,  and 
even  travellers  who  have  merely  been  able  to  bestow  a  superficial 
glance  on  matters,  speak  of  the  great  care  bestowed  on  this  point ; 
but  no  author  appears  to  have  given  any  details  as  to  the  course  of 
practice  adopted.  Perhaps  from  the  naturally  jealous  and  uncom 
municative  disposition  of  the  Chinese,  they  have  been  unable  tc 
acquire  any ;  and,  perhaps,  few  have  thought  it  worth  while  to  trou- 
ble themselves  about  so  degraded  an  animal  as  the  hog.  Howevei 
this  may  be,  it  is  much  to  be  regretted  that  the  information  is  so 
very  scanty,  for  many  valuable  hints  might  probably  have  been  thus 
obtained. 

Tradescent  Lay,  the  naturalist  in  Beechy's  expedition,  in  his  inte- 
resting work  on  China,  thus  amusingly  speaks  of  the  natives  and 
their  swine : — "  There  is  a  striking  analogy  between  these  two,  A 
Chinese  admires  a  round  face  and  the  smooth  curvatures  of  a  f.un- 
belly,  and  where  opportunity  serves,  cultivates  these  additions  to 
personal  beauty  in  himself.  The  Chinese  pig  is  fashioned  on  the 
same  model.  At  an  early  period  the  back  becomes  convex,  the 
belly  protuberant,  and  the  visage  shows  a  remarkable  disposition  to 
rotundity.  Nor  is  the  resemblance  merely  personal;  in  the  moral 
character  there  is  an  amusing  similitude,  contrariety  and  obstinacy 
being  the  prevailing  characteristics  of  both  men  and  brutes." 

The  same  author  informs  us  that  swine  arc  rarely  driven  or  made 
to  walk  in  China,  but  convoyed  from  place,  to  place  in  a  species  of 


SWINE  IN   CEYLON  AND   HINDOSTAN.  65 

cradle  suspended  upon  a  pole,  carried  by  two  men.  But  he  says, 
"  the  difficulty  is  to  get  the  animal  into  this  conveyance,  and  this  is 
accomplished  by  the  cradle  being  placed  in  front  of  the  pig,  and 
the  owner  then  vigorously  pulling  at  'porky's  tail,'  and  in  the  spirit 
of  opposition  the  animal  darts  into  the  place  they  have  prepared 
for  him.  At  the  journey's  end,  the  bearers  dislodge  him  by  spitting 
in  his  face." 

Mr.  Lay  states  that  "  pork  is  very  plentiful  in  China,  but  never 
agreeable  to  the  European  eye,  from  its  shining,  flabby  appearance ; 
it  does  not  taste  either  like  our  pork,  and  is  only  tolerable  when 
cut  into  thin  slices  and  fried  in  soy  to  correct  the  grossness  of  its 
natural  juices.  The  natives  cut  it  in  long  slices  or  rashers,  and 
dry  it  in  the  sun,  and  thus  prepared  it  is  not  unpleasant  in  flavor, 
although  it  is  then  by  no  means  easy  to  distinguish  it  from  dogs'  or 
cats'  flesh  similarly  prepared." 

CEYLON. 

In  speaking  of  Ceylon,  and  its  neighborhood,  an  intelligent  travel- 
ler says: — "The  swine  here  are  a  long-legged,  ugly  breed,  allowed 
to  run  wild  and  pick  up  whatever  food  they  can  get.  I  never  saw, 
at  any  native  cottage  or  farm,  a  pig  penned  up  or  put  to  fatten,  and 
yet  the  natives  are  very  fond  of  hog's  flesh,  and  never  hold  any 
feast  or  festival  without  this  meat  constituting  the  chief  and  most 
approved  dishes." 

HINDOSTAN. 

The  existence  of  a  breed  of  swine  in  Hindostan  and  the  Birmese 
empire  is  mentioned  by  several  travellers,  but  scarcely  one  gives 
any  account  of  them.  It  would  seem,  however,  that  they  are  iden- 
tical with  the  Siamese  breed.  Hogs  are  also  enumerated  as  among 
the  wild  beasts  of  Central  India.  Some  of  the  Hindoo  tribes  use 
hog's  blood  for  all  the  purposes  to  which  other  nations  apply  holy 
water ;  but  pork  is  not  eaten,  excepting  by  Europeans  and  the  lowest 
caste  of  Hindoos.  In  the  Eastern  Archipelago  and  the  Moluccas,  a 
breed  of  wild  swine  exists  bearing  great  resemblance  to  the  Chinese, 
but  rather  longer  in  the  legs  and  lighter  in  the  body,  and  affording 
delicious  meat. 

TURKEY    AND    ARABIA. 

In  Turkey,  Syria,  Persia,  Arabia,  and  the  north-eastern  parts  of 
Asia,  comparatively  few  pigs  are  found,  and  these  are  of  an  iron- 
gray,  black,  and  occasionally  brown  hue;  short-legged,  small,  round 
in  the  body,  very  apt  to  fatten,  and  attaining  the  weight  of  from 
350  to  400  Ibs.  And  there  arc  two  ways  of  accounting  for  thist 


66  THE   HOG* 

viz.;  the  prevalence  of  the  Mohammedan  religion,  and  the  sandy, 
open  nature  of  the  country ;  for  it  is  chiefly  in  well-wooded  if  not 
cultivated  districts  that  we  find  swine,  their  nature  and  habits  alike 
unfitting  them  for  dry  sandy  deserts. 

AFRICA. 

In  this  quarter  of  the  globe  again,  we  meet  with  but  few  swine, 
until  we  approach  the  south-eastern  parts,  and  for  the  same  reasons 
which  we  have  just  given.  In  Abyssinia  they  are  to  be  found,  but 
they  are  not  held  in  much  estimation.  They  have  been  imported 
into  New  Holland,  Caflraria,  and  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope,  but  are 
not  kept  to  any  extent,  on  account  of  the  difficulty  of  feeding  them. 
In  most  of  these  places  pork  is  chiefly  used  as  food  for  the  lower 
classes,  and  but  little  care  or  attention  is  bestowed  upon  the  ani- 
mals ;  and  the  breeds  greatly  resemble  the  Chinese  variety,  but  are 
somewhat  less,  being  short-legged,  round-bodied  animals,  of  a  black 
or  dark  brown  color,  the  bristles  few  and  almost  as  fine  as  hairs, 
and  the  tail  terminated  by  a  tuft. 

The  Coast  of  Guinea  used  to  possess  a  breed  of  swine  which  have 
been  exported  thence  as  an  article  of  commerce,  especially  to  the 
new  settlements  in  America  and  to  some  parts  of  the  East  Indies, 
and  were  held  in  high  estimation  at  that  time.  But  the  cessa- 
tion of  the  intercourse  induced  by  the  slave-trade,  and  the  discovery 
of  more  valuable  breeds,  have  rendered  these  almost  forgotten. 
These  animals  were  large  in  size,  square  in  form,  of  a  reddish  color, 
the  body  covered  with  short,  bristly  hair,  and  smoother  and  more 
shiny  than  almost  any  other  variety  of  the  porcine  race ;  the  tail 
very  long,  and  the  ears  long,  narrow,  and  terminating  in  a  point. 
This  variety  is  also  found  in  Brazil.  , 

EUROPE. 

We  now  find  swine  almost  universal,  and  every  where,  more  or 
less,  an  object  of  special  care  and  attention,  both  as  furnishing  a 
valuable  kind  of  animal  food,  and  an  article  of  commerce. 

MALTA. 

Coming  up  the  Mediterranean  Sea  we  find  the. small  black  Maltese 
breed,  the  bodies  of  which  are  almost  bare  and  smooth,  and  which 
fatten  so  aptly  and  afford  such  delicate  pork.  Spain  then  offers  its 
breeds,  none  of  which  are,  however,  held  in  great  estimation  out  of 
their  native  country.  The  chief  of  these  is  a  short-headed,  long,  ye* 
round-bodied,  dumpty-legged  variety,  of  a  reddish-brown  or  copper 
color ;  the  skin  fine  and  the  bristles  slender ;  it  is  small  in  size,  very 


SWINE  IN  EUROPE.  67 

prolific,  and  may  easily  be  fattened  to  an  enormous  weight.  This 
breed  is  also  found  in  Portugal  and  some  parts  of  the  south  of  Italy  ; 
it  closely  resembles  the  Siamese  pigs,  and  has  doubtless  originally 
sprung  from  them.  The  far-famed  Bologna  sausages  are  made  from 
che  flesh  of  this  animal. 

ITALY. 

Italy  too  is  in  some  degree  celebrated  for  its  pigs,  the  best  breeds 
of  which,  like  the  Maltese,  are  small,  black,  destitute  of  bristles,  and 
delicate  in  flesh.  The  Neapolitan  breed  has  been  extensively  ex. 
ported,  for  the  purpose  of  crossing  with  other  kinds,  and  has  found 
considerable  favor  in  many  parts  of  England.  In  themselves  these 
pigs  are  not  sufficiently  hardy  for  general  use,  but,  crossed  with 
rougher  breeds,  they  yield  a  valuable  progeny,  fine  in  form,  delicate 
in  flesh,  and  easy  to  fatten.  There  is  a  much  larger  race  of  swine 
bred  in  the  Duchy  of  Parma,  and  generally  considered  to  be  the 
finest  breed  in  Italy,  in  every  point  of  view. 

In  Palermo,  Bosco,  the  environs  of  Rome,  and  the  neighborhood 
of  Bologna,  Count  Chateauvieux  tells  us  pigs  are  kept.  Those  at 
Bosco,  on  the  Apennines,  he  describes  as  a  good  breed,  which  the 
farmers  fatten  on  chestnuts  and  milk,  housing  them  in  the  winter 
and  suffering  them  to  run  over  the  mountains  during  the  summer. 
At  the  farm  of  Campo  Morto  he  found  a  herd  of  2000,  of  the 
domestic  breed,  and  black.  They  run  all  the  year  on  the  immense 
tract  of  land  which  extends  towards  the  sea,  are  fattened  on  nuts  and 
acorns,  and  yield  excellent  meat.  They  are  not  indigenous,  but 
have  been  brought  thither  to  stock  the  woods,  and  they  are  regarded 
by  the  proprietor  of  that  farm  as  the  most  valuable  part  of  his 
stock,  for  their  keep  costs  him  little  or  nothing,  and  they  yield  a 
very  good  profit. 

The  pigs  he  found  on  the  marshy  plains  of  Polesimo,  between 
Bologna  and  Ferrara,  he  describes  as  large,  lean,  thin-flanked,  and 
long-limbed  animals.  (Chateauvieux's  Letters  from  Italy.) 

GERMANY. 

Pursuing  our  way  to  Germany  we  meet  with  totally  different  ani- 
mals, submitted  for  the  most  part  to  an  entirely  different  manage- 
ment. The  common  breeds  of  the  country  are  every  where  describ- 
ed as  huge,  gaunt,  long-legged,  lean-bodied,  greyhound-like  animals, 
with  exceedingly  long  snouts  and  coarse  bristles,  forming  almost  as 
much  of  a  mane  on  t,he  neck  and  shoulders  as  those  of  the  wild 
boar. 

In  Prussia  and  many  parts  of  Poland  a  rather  smaller  but  scarcely 
less  uncouth  race  are  met  with,  of  a  yellow  or  redd!sh-brown  color. 


63  THE  HOG. 

Thaer  informs  us,  that  "  the  chief  breeds  of  figs  known  in  the 
north  of  Germany  and  crossed  in  various  different  ways,  are, — the 
Moldavian,  Wallachian,  and  Bothnian,  remarkable  for  their  enor- 
mous size,  iron-gray  color,  and  large  lapping  ears  ;  and  the  Polish,  or, 
properly  speaking,  the  Podolian,  which  are  also  very  large,  but  are 
of  a  yellow  color,  and  have  a  broad  brown  stripe  along  the  spine." 
These  two  breeds,  he  says,  furnish  the  large  pigs  for  fattening,  but 
they  require  a  proportionably  large  quantity  of  food,  and  besides 
are  not  very  productive,  the  sows  seldom  bringing  forth  more  than 
four  or  five  at  the  most  at  a  birth. 

The  Bavarian  pigs,  he  states,  are  much  esteemed  for  their  small- 
ness  of  bone  and  aptitude  to  fatten  ;  but  the  flesh  is  not  liked,  it 
being  too  flabby  and  soft.  This  breed  is  usually  marked  with  red- 
dish-brown spots. 

The  Westphalian  is  another  breed  very  generally  met  with; 
these  animals  are  large  in  size  and  very  prolific,  bringing  forth  ten 
or  twelve  at  a  litter. 

The  next  variety  mentioned  he  designates  u  the  English  pig,"  and 
describes  it  as  being  large,  full,  and  deep  in  the  body,  and  requiring 
very  substantial  food.  A  cross  between  this  breed  and  the  West- 
phalian is  stated  to  produce  an  excellent  animal. 

To  these  he  adds  the  Chinese  breed,  the  Spanish  or  African  black 
pig,  which  he  estimates  very  highly  from  its  aptitude  to  fatten  on 
indifferent  or  scanty  food,  its  rapid  growth,  delicate  flesh,  excellent 
hams,  and  the  advantages  derived  from  crossing  the  larger  breeds 
with  it ;  and  lastly,  the  German  pig,  properly  so  called.  But  it 
appears  that  this  can  scarcely  be  legarded  as  a  distinct  breed,  but 
rather  as  the  result  of  numerous  and  various  crosses,  for  he  says : 
"  This  breed  is  different  in  its  characteristics  in  different  provinces  ; 
the  color  is  white,  black,  gray,  or  spotted.  It  is  of  a  middling  size 
and  can  be  supported  on  a  moderate  quantity  of  nourishment. 
There  is  no  doubt  but  that  by  more  attention  being  bestowed  upon 
the  breeding,  rearing,  and  feeding  of  this  race,  they  might  be  mate- 
rially improved,  but  most  of  the  persons  who-  undertake  the  man- 
agement of  pigs  on  an  extensive  scale,  seem  rather  anxious  to  try 
the  effect  of  different  and  new  crosses  than  to  improve  the  old 

breed." 

i 

HUNGARY. 

In  Hungary,  Croatia,  and  Servia  a  race  of  swine  resembling  that 
found  in  Turkey  are  met  with  ;  small,  of  a  dark  gray  color,  and 
short-legged,  yet  not  apparently  deriving  their  origin  from  the 
Chinese.  The  flesh  of  the  swine  reared  in  Servia  is  said  to  be  more 
delicate  than  will  be  met  with  any  where  throughout  the  whole  of 
Europe. 


SWINE  IN   FRANCE.  69 

In  Poland,  Russia,  Sweden,  and  the  northern  parts  of  Europe, 
the  .iwine  yet  retain  all  the  characteristics  of  their  ancestor  the  wild 
boar.  They  are  mostly  of  a  red,  or  dirty  brown,  or  yellow  color; 
long  in  the  body,  light  and  active  in  make,  having  long  legs,  a  broad 
flat  head,  erect  ears,  and  a  nervous,  slightly  up-turned  snout.  They 
are  wild  in  their  habits,  fierce,  not  ap-*,  fatteners,  or  producing  deli- 
cate meat. 

In  Holland  and  Belgium  we  find  numerous  varieties  and  crosses, 
but  the  original  breeds  have  large  bodies  and  long  lopping  ears ;  the 
sows  are  prolific,  and  if  properly  attended  to,  the  animals  fatten  very 
kindly.  There  is  a  variety  often  met  with, — and  much  esteemed  for 
its  productive  powers,  its  disposition  to  fatten,  and  the  delicacy  of  its 
flesh, — which  most  probably  derives  its  origin  from  a  cross  between 
a  native  pig  and  one  of  the  Siamese  breed.  This  animal  is  of  a  me- 
diAm  size,  rather  short  on  the  legs,  with  a  full  round  body,  straight 
back,  broad  flanks,  and  small  head.  The  bristles  are  white  and  thinly 
scattered  over  the  back,  but  growing  rather  closer  upon  the  neck 
and  towards  the  head. 

FRANCE. 

The  original  breeds  of  France  are  mostly  coarse  ungainly  animals, 
for  the  most  part  white,  excepting  towards  the  south,  and  there  we 
find  the  native  breeds  very  much  to  resemble  those  of  Italy.  "  In 
the  time  of  Buffon,  the  greater  proportion  of  the  hogs  in  the  north 
of  France  were  white,  as  were  likewise  those  of  Vivarais ;  while  in 
Dauphiny,  which  is  not  far  distant,  they  were  all  black.  Those  of 
Languedoc  and  Provence  were  also  of  the  latter  color.  Black  pigs 
still  prevail  both  in  Italy  and  Spain.  According  to  the  great  French 
naturalist,  one  of  the  most  evident  marks  of  degeneration  (an  ill-ap- 
plied term)  is  furnished  by  the  ears,  which  become  more  supple  and 
pendent  as  the  animal  changes  into  the  domestic  state.  He  regards  the 
wild  boar  as  the  model  of  the  species  erroneously,  for  it  can  only 
be  looked  upon  as  formed  on  the  model  best  adapted  to  the  haunts 
and  habits  of  a  wild  animal,  the  welfare  of  which  requires  either  the 
instinct  of  a  cunning  concealment  or  the  possession  of  strength  or 
swiftness.  Now  concealment  in  a  pigsty  is  of  little  avail  when  the 
day  of  terror  comes,  and  the  obesity  of  a  well-fed  porker  is,  and 
must  ever  continue,  entirely  inconsistent  either  with  speed  of  foot  or 
vigor  of  limb  ;  therefore  the  proper  attributes  of  the  animal  in  its 
unreclaimed  and  domesticated  conditions  being  incompatible  with 
each  other,  those  of  the  former  ought  not  in  any  way  to  be  set  up  or 
assumed  as  a  model  by  which  the  latter  should  be  altered  or  im- 
proved."—  Quarterly  journal  of  Agriculture,  vol.  iii.  Of  late  years 
French  agriculturists  have  seen  the  advantages  small  breeds  possess 
crver  large  ones,  and  endeavored  by  judicious  crosses  to  reduce  the 


70  THE  HOG. 

size  of  their  pigs,  and  at  the  same  time  give  to  the  breeds  all  the 
value  arising  from  early  maturity,  a  kindly  disposition,  and  produc- 
tiveness. M.  Magne  says,  "  Our  breeds  of  pigs  are  in  general  very 
defective ;  they  are  long-limbed,  thin-necked,  narrow-chested,  and 
have  high  curved  backs ;  they  are  hardy,  but  far  from  precocious, 
fatten  with  difficulty,  and  consume  an  immense  quantity  of  food  com- 
pared with  the  flesh  they  yield." 

We  are  partly  indebted  to  Mr.  Wilson's  valuable  "  Essay  on  Do 
mestic  Animals"  for  the  following  account  of  the  present  chief 
breeds  of  swine  in  France.  The  most  distinguishable  of  the  present 
races  of  France  are  the  following : — 

"  1.  The  race  of  the  Pays  tfAuge,  (by  some  authors  called  the 
Normandy  breed,)  which  has  the  head  small  and  sharp-pointed ;  the 
ears  narrow  and  pointed ;  the  body  lengthened ;  the  legs  broad  and 
strong ;  the  hair  coarse,  spare,  and  of  a  white  color ;  and  the  bones 
small.  It  attains  to  the  weight  of  600  Ibs."  M.  Bella  considers  that 
this  breed  are  great  eaters,  but  do  not  fatten  kindly. 

2.  The  race  of  Poitu,  of  which  the  head  is  long  and  thick,  the  point 
projecting ;  the  ears  large  and  pendulous ;  the  body  lengthened  ;  the 
bristles  white  and  coarse ;  the  feet  broad  and  strong ;  and  the  bones 
large.     Its  weight  does  not  exceed  500  Ibs. 

3.  The  race  of  Perigord,  of  which  the  neck  is  thick  and  short,  the 
oody  broad  and  compact,  and  the  hair  black,  short,  and  rough.    This 
race,  when  crossed  with  the  Poitou  pigs,  produces  very  good  ani 
mals;  and  it  is  probable  that  the  pied  swine,  so  common  in  the 
south  of  France,  are  descended  from  this  cross. 

4.  The  race  of  Boulogne.     Of  considerable  dimensions,  and  well 
inclined  to  fatten  quickly ;  ears  very  broad ;  general  color  white. 
This  breed  has  sprung  from  a  cross  between  the  large  English  breed 
and  one  of  the  common  races  of  France. 

Of  other  continental  races  we  shall  mention  the  Jutland  swine. 
Of  these  the  ears  are  large  and  pendent,  the  body  elongated,  the 
back  somewhat  curved,  the  legs  long.  The  size  of  this  breed  is  con- 
siderable, as  from  200  Ibs.  to  300  Ibs.  (French  livres)  of  lard  are 
got  from  them  in  their  second  year.  They  form  an  important  branch 
of  commerce. 

The  race  known  abroad  under  the  name  of  Cochon  de  Siam  is  the 
representative  of  our  Chinese  breed.  Its  ears  are  short,  straight,  and 
flexible ;  its  body  is  covered  with  soft  and  somewhat  silky  hair,  which 
is  stiff  and  thick  on  the  head  and  back  of  the  neck,  and  frizzly  on  the 
cheeks  and  under  jaw  ;  on  the  other  parts  it  is  thin,  and  for  the  most 
part  hard  and  black.  The  skin  is  also  black,  except  on  the  belly ; 
the  eyes  are  surrounded  by  a  slight  tinge  of  flame-color ;  their  tails 
measure  nine  inches  in  length  ;  their  bodies  three  feet  three  inches ; 
their  height  at  the  shoulder  is  one  foot  eight  inches  (French.)  Thia 


SWINE  IN  TRANCE.  71 

breed  appears  to  have  spread  extensively  over  most  of  the  southern 
shores  of  the  old  continent. 

To  these  he  adds  the  Turkish  hog,  the  New  Guinea  hog,  De  Witt's 
hog,  and  the  smooth  or  short-legged  swine,  the  two  latter  of  which 
evidently  derive  their  origin  from  a  cross  with  the  Siamese  and  some 
other  breed,  and  all  of  which  fatten  easily  and  to  a  great  weight,  and 
are  good  breeders. 

The  swine  in  Normandy  are,  even  to  the  present  day,  of  the  large, 
gaunt,  grizzly  race,  common  in  some  of  the  south-eastern  counties  of 
England  and  Germany.  Mr.  Wilson  informs  us  that  in  the  time  of 
Buffon,  by  far  the  greater  proportion  of  the  swine  in  the  north  of 
France  were  perfectly  white,  as  were  also  those  of  Vivarais ;  while 
in  Dauphiny,  which  is  not  far  distant,  they  were  all  black.  Those  of 
Languedoc  and  Provence  were  likewise  black.  This  is  a  curious 
fact,  and  seems  to  prove,  beyond  a  doubt,  that  the  parent  stock 
of  these  two  opposite  colors  was  totally  different,  and  also  that  there 
was  little  intermixture  or  crossing  among  the  breeds  of  these  places, 
but  that  the  races  were  preserved  pure  and  distinct.  He  also  men- 
tions that  latterly  a  new  variety  of  the  porcine  race  has  been  intro- 
duced under  the  name  of  "  Le  Pore  de  Nobles"  which  appears  to  have 
been  derived  from  the  improved  English  breed,  which  originated 
from  a  cross  between  an  Anglo-Chinese  sow,  and  an  emancipated 
wild  boar.  This  answers  very  well,  and  is  much  esteemed  on  ac- 
count of  the  delicate  flavor  of  its  flesh. 

In  Champagne  the  breed  of  pigs  are  white,  long-limbed,  flat-sided, 
hollow  in  the  flanks,  and  having  large  ears. 

In  Quercy  the  breed  is  of  a  moderate  size,  has  a  small  short  head, 
little  ears,  and  a  curved  back ;  most  of  these  pigs  are  spotted,  but 
there  is  more  of  black  than  white  in  them. 

In  the  department  of  Mayenne,  and  along  the  Oudon,  some  very 
valuable  kinds  are  found,  which  have  been  carefully  bred,  and  reared 
expressly  for  the  purpose  of  improving  the  French  breeds  of  pigs. 
There  are  two  distinct  varieties,  the  one  called  the  "  Craon  Breed," 
which  has  a  long  body,  short  legs,  and  a  back  so  broad  that  even 
when  the  animals  are  lean  the  spine  does  not  project.  These  fatten 
well  and  easily,  but  do  not  begin  to  make  much  flesh  until  they  are 
eleven  or  twelve  months  old,  after  which  they  rapidly  develop 
themselves,  and  attain  an  immense  weight. 

The  other  variety  is  designated  the  "  Valley  Breed";  here,  too,  the 
legs  are  short,  the  body  of  a  medium  length,  the  back  extremely 
broad,  the  ears  large  and  falling  to  the  tip  of  the  snout,  which  is  short 
and  wide ;  the  back  is  covered  with  bristles,  the  tail  finished  with  a 
tuft  of  the  same,  and  from  the  under-jaw  two  hairy  appendages  similar 
to  those  of  a  goat  depend.  Pigs  of  this  breed  fatten  well,  and  may 
be  killed  at  any  age. 

In  the  province  of  Bresse,  in  the  neighborhood  of  Lyons,  of  the 


72  THE   HOG. 

Dombes,  and  Carolais,  and  prevalent  through  the  department  of 
Aisne,  is  a  breed  called  the  Bressane  race.  These  animals  are  of  a 
moderate  size,  long  in  the  body,  round  in  form,  short-] egged,  with 
long,  pendulous  ears,  and  of  a  dark  or  blackish  color,  with  a  broad 
stripe  of  white  encircling  the  body :  their  flesh  is  delicate,  and  of  a 
fine  flavor. 

An  attempt  was  made  to  introduce  some  of  the  English  breed  of 
swine  into  France  by  an  agriculturist,  and  he  thus  narrates  the 
results : — "  I  began  with  the  large  Shropshire  pigs.  They  pleased 
my  eye,  and  for  some  little  time  I  was  perfectly  satisfied  ;  but  pre- 
sently I  began  to  remark,  that,  although  they  devoured  an  amazing 
quantity  of  food,  they  fattened  but  very  slowly,  and  seemed  to  derive 
no  advantage  whatever  from  the  herbage  and  vegetables  which  they 
found  in  the  fields. 

"  When  killed,  the  flesh,  and  especially  the  fat,  was  exceedingly 
coarse.  The  sows,  nevertheless,  yielded  many  pigs  at  each  farrow, 
which,  from  their  size  when  young,  sold  well  to  persons  who  were 
tolerably  rich,  and  knew  little  or  nothing  about  the  breeding  of 
pigs. 

"  I  next  tried  the  small  Berkshire  pigs,  and  immediately  perceived 
a  very  sensible  improvement.  They  fattened  quickly,  procured  most 
of  their  nourishment  from  the  fields,  and  their  flesh  was  very  superior 
to  that  of  the  last-named  breed.  But  as  they  were  large,  I  thought 
to  effect  a  still  greater  improvement  by  exchanging  them  for  the 
Chinese ;  but  here  I  fell  into  the  opposite  extreme.  The  Chinese 
were  prolific,  fattened  speedily,  and  almost  obtained  their  own  sub- 
sistence ;  but  they  were  faulty  in  form,  their  flesh  was  not  firm,  but 
loose  in  fibre,  as  if  they  had  died  of  disease."  And,  accordingly, 
the  experimenter  returned  to  some  of  his  best  native  breeds. 

In  FLANDERS  and  the  NETHERLANDS  the  indigenous  swine  are  long- 
legged,  narrow-backed,  flat-sided,  ugly,  gaunt  animals,  difficult  to 
fatten ;  but  when  in  good  condition  making  fine-flavored,  excellent 
pork  and  bacon. 

THE    CHANNEL    ISLANDS. 

JERSEY. — Great  attention  has  here  been  paid  to  the  breed  of  pigs, 
which  have  improved  by  crosses  and  admixture  with  the  best  Eng- 
lish and  French  varieties.  The  pork  is  excellent ;  many  declare  it 
to  be  finer  and  more  delicate  in  flavor  than  any  English  pork.  It 
forms  one  of  the  chief  articles  of  consumption  during  the  winter 
months. 

GUERNSEY. — The  swine  here  have  latterly  been  considerably  im- 
proved by  the  exertions  and  encouragements  of  the  Guernsey  Agri- 
cultural Society.  The  original  breed  resembled  the  native  French 
and  Irish  pigs,  and  were  large,  coarse,  ungainly,  and  unprofitable, 


SWINE  IN   THE   CHANNEL  ISLANDS.  73 

evidently  descended  from  the  wild  long-legged,  flat-sided  race;  but 
judicious  crosses  with  the  Hampshire  and  Berkshire  breeds,  have 
now  made  it  a  well-shaped,  profitable  animal.  The  Guernsey  pigs 
of  the  present  day  fatten  readily  and  cheaply,  and  often  attain  to  an 
enormous  size.  One  was  killed  not  long  since  weighing  640  pounds, 
offal  not  included.  The  pig  here  forms  part  of  the  establishment  of 
every  cottager,  and  is  kept  a  close  prisoner  in  his  sty,  where  he  is 
well  supplied  with  buttermilk,  bran,  potatoes,  cabbages,  and  all  kinds 
of  vegetables  during  the  spring  and  summer,  and  fed  almost  exclu- 
sively on  parsnips  from  September.  They  are  generally  killed  at 
about  twenty  months  old,  and  weigh  then  from  300  to  400  or  450 
pounds.  Pork  forms  the  staple  food  of  the  Guernsey  farmers  and 
cottagers.  The  author  has  here  to  acknowledge  his  obligation  to 
Colonel  Lake,  of  Woodlands,  Guernsey,  for  the  information  so  kindly 
contributed  by  him. 

SARK. — The  swine  here  are  very  similar  to  those  of  Guernsey  ;  if 
there  is  any  difference,  it  is  that  they  are  somewhat  larger.  They 
are  managed  in  a  similar  manner,  fatten  wel],  and  are  profitable 
animals. . 

ALDERNEY. — Here,  too,  the  original  large  breed  have  been  improv- 
ed by  judicious  crosses.  The  fat  hogs  reach  an  enormous  size, 
sometimes  even  outweighing  a  tolerably  fed  cow ;  but  500  pounds 
is  no  uncommon  weight. 

THE  ISLE  OF  MAN. — Here  the  original  breed  of  swine  are  small, 
wild,  apt  to  fatten,  and  that  without  much  care  or  attention,  and 
yielding  excellent  meat.  Crosses  have  been  introduced,  which  per- 
haps have  better  adapted  the  animals  to  the  system  of  sty-feeding ; 
but  we  question  whether  they  can  be  said  to  be  improved  by  having 
been  rendered  more  dependent  upon  the  care  of  man. 

The  HEBRIDES,  or  WESTERN  ISLES. — The  most  common  breeds 
of  these  islands  are  generally  considered  to  be  aboriginal,  and  line- 
ally descended  from  the  wild  boar.  These  swine  are  described  as 
being  very  small,  active,  and  shaggy,  of  a  grayish  or  dirty  yellow 
color,  grazing  wild  upon  the  hills  like  sheep,  their  sole  food  herbage 
and  roots,  and  receiving  no  other  sustenance  or  shelter  all  the  year 
round  but  what  is  furnished  them  by  nature,  yet  being  in  good  con- 
dition, and  affording  excellent  meat.  When  artificially  fed,  and  care- 
fully sheltered  and  tended,  they  will  attain  to  a  verv  considerable 
bulk,  without  any  deterioration  of  the  quality  and  flavor  of  their 
flesh. 

The  SHETLAND  ISLANDS. — The  breed  of  swine  here,  very  much  re- 
semble those  we  have  just  been  describing.  They  are  small,  of  a 
dirty  white  or  yellowish  brown  color,  remarkably  strong  in  the 
snout,  with  sharp-pointed  ears,  and  arched  back,  from  which  rises  a 
forest  of  stiff  brustles  When  poor,  the  flesh  of  these  animals  is 
coarse ;  but  those  w}>veh  are  properly  fattened  yield  sweet  and  deli- 
4 


74  THE  HOG. 

cate  meat,  and  the  hams,  when  cured,  are  pronounced  by  connois- 
seurs to  be  excellent.  The  Shetland  pigs  are  generally  suffered  to 
roam  about  and  forage  for  themselves  at  will,  and  the  mischief  they 
do  is  by  no  means  inconsiderable ;  for  with  their  muscular  snouts 
they  plough  up  the  soil,  and  root  out  potatoes,  carrots,  and  turnips, 
and  even  upturn  the  growing  corn ;  and,  far  from  being  a  source 
of  profit,  are,  from  the  mischief  they  do,  an  absolute  loss  to  the 
country. 

Dr.  Hibbert,  (Account  of  the  Shetland  Isles,)  describes  the  origi- 
nal Shetland  pig  as  "  a  little  brindle  monster,  the  very  epitome  of  a 
wild  boar,  yet  scarcely  larger  in  size  than  a  terrier  dog : — 

"  His  bristled  back  a  trench  impaled  appears, 
And  stands  erected  like  a  field  of  spears." 

According  to  his  account,  "  this  lordling  of  the  seat-holds  and 
arable  lands  ranges  undisturbed  over  his  free  demesnes,  and,  in  quest 
or  the  earthworms  and  the  roots  of  plants,  furrows  up  the  pastures 
or  corn-fields  in  deep  trenches,  destroying  in  his  progress  all  the 
plovers',  curlews',  and  other  birds'  nests  he  meets  with.  He  bivouacs 
in  some  potato-field,  which  he  rarely  quits  until  he  has  excavated 
a  ditch  large  enough  to  bury  within  it  a  dozen  fellow-commoners 
of  his  own  weight  and  size.  Nor  is  the  reign  of  this  petty  tyrant 
wholly  bloodless ;  young  lambs  just  dropped  often  fall  victims  to 
his  ferocity  or  thirst  for  blood." 

The  ORKNEYS. — To  describe  the  swine  found  here  would  be  but 
a  repetition  of  what  we  have  already  said.  They  are  small,  of  ro- 
ving habits,  do  much  mischief,  yield  but  poor  meat  unless  carefully 
fattened,  and  seldom  reach  a  weight  of  more  than  sixty  or  seventy 
pounds.  Low  informs  us  that  the  pork  rarely  fetches  more  than 
%d.  per  pound,  and  a  butcher  never  thinks  of  giving  more  than  4s.  or 
5s.  a-head  for  the  pigs.  Ropes  are  fabricated  from  the  bristles  of  these 
animals,  by  which  the  natives  suspend  themselves  over  the  most 
fearful  precipices  in  search  of  sea-fowls'  eggs ;  and,  short  as  the  hair 
or  bristles  are,  the  ropes  manufactured  from  them  are  said  to  answer 
better  for  this  perilous  purpose  than  hempen  ones  would,  being  less 
liable  to  be  frayed  by  the  sharp  and  rugged  rocks. 

It  is  in  these  northern  islands  that  several  authors  have  spoken  of 
swine  being  used  as  beasts  of  draught,  but  it  could  not  have  been 
these  aboriginal  and  diminutive  breeds,  we  should  conceive,  but 
some  of  the  large,  heavy  kinds  imported  fronx  England  or  Ireland. 


SWINE  IN  SCOTLAND  76 


CHAPTER  VI. 

SCOTLAND,  aboriginal  breed  of  Swine  in— lii.  e  *nown  until  lately— Present  races— EXGI.AXD, 
original  breed— Swine  in  Yorkshire— Lincolnshire— Leicestershire— Bedfordshire— Essex— 
Suffolk — Norfolk — Shropshire — Cheshire  —  Gloucestershire  —  Herefordshire  —  Wiltshire  — 
Berkshire— Hampshire— and  Sussex— The  Chinese  breed— Swine  in  Ireland. 

SCOTLAND. 

THERE  can  be  little  doubt  but  that  the  aboriginal  breed  of  High- 
land swine  are,  like  those  found  in  the  Hebrides,  descended  from 
the  wild  boar,  for  until  within  the  last  half-century,  they  retained 
much  of  the  form,  and  many  of  the  habits  and  characteristics,  of 
the  wild  breed.  They  also  "are  small,  shaggy,  bristled,  and  wild  ; 
wandering  about  the  hills,  grazing  and  seeking  out  roots  and  other 
favorite  food,  and  requiring  no  care  or  sustenance  at  the  hand  of 
man,  yet  keeping  in  condition,  and  making  excellent  pork  or  bacon. 
The  latter  end  of  the  autumn  is  the  best  time  to  kill  them,  as  they 
are  then  in  good  flesh. 

Those  which  have  been  brought  into  the  low  country  and  arti 
ficially  fed,  have  fattened  to  a  considerable  size,  and  yielded  fine- 
grained, firm,  and  well-flavored  meat. 

Formerly  immense  herds  of  these  small  swine  were  reared  in  the 
Highlands  of  Scotland,  and  brought  down  to  the  Lowland  markets 
for  sale ;  the  practice  of  keeping  these  animals  gradually  declined 
some  fifty  or  sixty  years  ago,  but  has  latterly  been  revived  since 
the  cultivation  of  the  potato  has  become  more  extensive.  There 
cannot,  however,  be  a  doubt  that  a  great  number  of  this  breed  of 
pigs  might  be  advantageously  fattened  upon  every  Highland  farm 
where  the  land  and  crop  is  inclosed,  both  on  account  of  the  little 
artificial  food  they  require,  and  the  roots  and  various  substances 
they  will  consume  which  no  other  kind  of  stock  would  touch. 

But  although  the  practice  of  keeping  swine  in  the  Highlands  and 
north  of  Scotland  is  of  very  ancient  date,  there  are  no  records  which 
speak  of  their  existence  in  the  more  southern  parts  of  Caledonia  ; 
indeed,  if  we  may  give  credence  to  several  anecdotes  related  by  Mr. 
Henderson,  they  were  absolutely  unknown  animals  in  several  parts. 
Treatise  on  Breeding  Swine. 

It  would  seem  that,  some  hundred  and  twenty  years  since,  a  person 
residing  in  the  parish  of  Ruthwell,  in  Dumfriesshire,  received  a  present 
of  a  young  pig,  which  is  said  to  be  the  first  which  had  ever  appeared 
in  that  part  of  the  country.  This  pig  strayed  from  his  new  home 
one  day  into  the  adjoining  parish  of  Carlavroc,  and  wandering  along 
the  seaside  came  upon  a  woman  who  was  keeping  cattle.  She 
screamed  at  the  sight  of  the  "  strange  beast,"  and  ran  off  to  her 
village,  and  the  pig  after  her.  There  she  declared  she  had  seen  *'  the 


76  THE   HOG. 

deil  come  out  of  the  sea,  and  that  he  had  chased  her,  roaring  and 
gaping  at  her  heels."  One  of  the  bravest  of  the  villagers  got  a  Bible 
and  an  old  sword  to  "  cunger  the  deil ;"  but  while  he  was  uttering  his 
threats,  along  came  the  creature  with  such  a  loud  "grumph,"  that 
the  poor  man  fell  down  half  dead  with  fright,  and  all  the  rest  fled, 
and  then  from  windows  and  house-tops  peeped  at  the  "  monster," 
until  one  fellow  cried  out  that  it  was  "  the  gude  man  o'  the  brow's 
grumphy,"  and  gradually  the  alarm  subsided. 

This  same  pig  seems  to  have  frightened  many  persons  at  different 
times,  as  did  another  which  escaped  by  some  means  from  a  vessel 
which  put  into  Glencaple  Quay,  just  below  Dumfriesshire,  and  was 
hunted  as  a  wild  beast,  and  at  last  slain  with  a  pitchfork  by  a  man, 
who  was  termed  "  stout-hearted  Geordy"  all  the  rest  of  his  life  for 
the  performance  of  this  valorous  exploit. 

In  1760  there  was  scarcely  a  parish  in  Dumfriesshire  which  could 
muster  twenty  swine,  but  within  ten  years  of  that  time  they  gradually 
began  to  increase,  and  each  farmer  took  to  keeping  one  or  two,  and 
from  1775  to  1780  the  trade  became  pretty  considerable.  This 
increase  was  chiefly  owing  to  the  exertions  of  Lord  Graham,  of 
Netherby,  who  encouraged  the  breeding  and  rearing  of  swine  among 
his  tenants  by  every  means  in  his  power,  and  was  the  chief  insti tutor 
and  supporter  of  a  market  at  Longtown,  in  Cumberland,  for  the  sale 
of  swine  and  pork. 

The  next  step  were  the  establishments  of  pig-markets  in  several 
other  principal  towns  in  the  southern  parts  of  Scotland,  and  small 
premiums  offered  on  every  market-day  to  the  owners  of  the  finest 
pig  or  the  largest  number  of  good  swine  brought  to  the  market. 

Where  thirty  or  forty  years  ago  there  was  not  a  pig  to  be  seen, 
as  much  as  400/.  or  500Z.  worth  of  hogs  and  bacon,  or  pork,  are  now 
sold  every  market-day.  This  alteration  is  ascribed  by  some  persons 
to  the  extension  of  the  cultivation  of  the  potato,  and  the  consequent 
increased  facility  for  feeding  and  fattening  swine  ;  but  it  may,  doubt- 
less, be  also  attributed  to  the  increasing  demand  for  animal  food,  the 
more  extended  views  of  farmers  and  agriculturists  of  the  present 
day,  and  an  appreciation  of  the  profit  and  advantage  arising  from  the 
keeping  of  these  valuable  animals. 

There  is  a  very  good  kind  which  are  well  made,  white  in  color, 
have  short  upright  ears,  fatten  quickly  and  on  little  food,  and  come 
early  to  maturity.  Crosses  with  the  Chinese  have  been  tried,  but 
they  produce  too  delicate  an  animal,  and  consequently  have  fallen  into 
disrepute.  It  would,  however,  be  needless  to  enter  into  an  account 
of  all  the  varieties  of  swine  now  existing  in  Scotland,  as,  in  describing 
the  English  breeds,  we  shall  have  to  speak  of  all  those  which  of  late 
years  have  been  introduced  into  Scotland,  and  either  crossed  with 
the  original  small,  dark,  prick-eared  Scottish  pig  or  with  each  other, 
OT  retained  in  their  natural  state.  Henderson  savs  that  hundreds  of 


SWINE   IN"   ENGLAND. 


77 


pigs  and  shots  (pigs  from  six  to  eight  months  old)  are  brought  ovei 
from  England  every  year,  and  fattened  in  Scotland. 


ENGLAND. 


The  original  breeds  of  this  country  are  now  rapidly  losing  all 
traces  of  individuality  under  the  varied  systems  of  crossing  to  which 
they  are  subjected.  Formerly  they  might  have  been  divided  into 
two  principal  classes,  the  small  and  the  large  breeds :  the  former 
having  ears  tending  to  the  upright,  being  dusky  in  hue,  and  greatly 
resembling  the  wild  boar  in  form ;  and  the  latter  being  long-bodied, 


THE    OLD    ENGLISH    HOG. 

long-eared  animals,  mostly  white  or  spotted.  The  former  were 
shiefly  found  in  Scotland,  and  on  the  northern  hills ;  and  the  latter 
in  the  lower  and  more  midland  counties  of  England,  where  the  hog 
had  been  more  domesticated. 

Where  individuals  of  the  pure  old  breed  are  met  with,  they  will 
be  found  long  in  limb,  narrow  in  the  back,  which  is  somewhat  curved, 
low  in  the  shoulders,  and  large  in  bone ;  in  a  word,  uniting  all  those 
characteristics  which  are  now  deemed  most  objectionable,  and  totally 
devoid  of  any  approach  to  symmetry.  The  form  is  uncouth,  and  the 
face  long  and  almost  hidden  by  the  pendulous  ears.  They  neverthe- 


78  1HE  HOG. 

less  have  iheir  guod  qualities,  although  aptitude  to  fatten  does  not 
rank  among  the  number,  for  they  consume  a  proportionally  much 
larger  quantity  of  food  than  they  repay  ;  but  the  females  produce 
large  litters,  and  are  far  better  nurses  than  those  of  the  smaller  breeds. 
They  are,  however,  now  nearly  extinct,  disappearing  before  the  pre- 
sent rage  for  diminishing  the  size  of  the  hog  and  rendering  his  flesh 
more  delicate ;  points  which,  however  desirable  to  a  certain  extent, 
may  easily  be  carried  too  far.  Low  judiciously  observes  :  "  While 
we  should  improve  the  larger  breeds  that  are  left  us,  by  every  means 
in  our  power,  we  ought  to  take  care  that  we  do  not  sacrifice  them 
altogether.  We  should  remember  that  an  ample  supply  of  pork  is 
of  immense  importance  to  the  support  of  the  inhabitants  of  this 
country.  England  may  one  day  have  cause  to  regret  that  this  over- 
refinement  has  been  practised,  and  future  improvers  vainly  exert 
themselves  to  recover  those  fine  old  races  which  the  present  breeders 
seem  aiming  to  efface." 

It  would  be  vain  to  attempt  to  particularize  the  breeds  of  swine 
at  present  kept  in  this  country,  for  they  are  daily  altering  their  char- 
acteristics, under  the  influence  of  some  fresh  cross  ;  we  will  there- 
fore content  ourselves  with  enumerating  those  which  are  allowed  to 
have  been  the  chief  and  best  breeds,  and  pointing  out  some  of  the 
alterations  which  have  latterly  taken  place  in  them. 


YORKSHIRE. 

The  old  Yorkshire  breed  was  one  of  the  very  large  varieties,  and 
one  of  the  most  unprofitable  for  a  farmer,  being  greedy  feeders, 
difficult  to  fatten,  and  unsound  in  constitution.  They  were  of  a 
dirty  white  or  yellow  color,  spotted  with  black,  had  long  legs,  flat 
sides,  narrow  backs,  weak  loins,  and  large  bones.  Their  hair  was 
short  and  wiry,  and  intermingled  with  numerous  bristles  about  the 
head  and  neck,  and  their  ears  long.  When  full  grown  and  fat  they 
seldom  weighed  more  than  from  350  to  400  Ibs. 

These  have  of  late  years  been  crossed  with  pigs  of  the  new 
Leicester  breed;  and  where  the  crossings  have  been  judiciously 
managed  and  not  carried  too  far,  a  fine  race  of  deep-sided,  short- 
legged,  thin-haired  animals  have  been  obtained,  fattening  kindly,  and 
rising  to  a  weight  of  from  250  to  400  Ibs.,  when  killed  between  one 
and  two  years  old,  and  when  kept  over  two  years  reaching  even  500 
to  700  Ibs. 

Mr.  Samuel  Wiley,  of  Bransby,  to  whose  courtesy  we  are  in- 
debted for  the  information,  and  who  has  paid  much  attention  to  the 
breeding  of  swine,  keeps  only  the  pure  improved  Leicester  breed, 
which  with  ordinary  feeding  will,  at  sixteen  or  eighteen  months  old, 
weigh  from  250  to  300  Ibs. ;  and,  when  put  up  to  fatten,  attain  tho 


SWINE  IN  ENGLAND.  79 

weight  of  400  Ibs.     He  considers  them  far  superior  to,  and  more 
profitable  than  the  larger  breeds. 

Other  breeders  have  crossed  with  the  Chinese  and  Neapolitan 
breeds,  and  with  some  considerable  success — the  extremes  of  the 
large  and  small  kinds  happily  correcting  each  other.  The  Berk- 
shire pigs  have  also  been  employed  as  a  cross,  and  hardy,  profitable, 
well-proportioned  animals  obtained.  The  original  breed,  in  its  purity, 
size,  and  defectiveness,  is  now  hardly  to  be  met  with,  having  shared 
the  fate  of  the  other  large  old  breeds,  and  given  place  to  smaller 
and  more  symmetrical  animals.  Mr.  Smith,  of  Hoyland  Hall,  Shef- 
field, whose  kind  replies  to  our  queries  we  have  to  acknowledge,  is 
another  great  pig-breeder,  and  his  swine  have  carried  off  numerous 
prizes  ;  they  appear  to  be  descended  from  a  cross  between  a  York- 
shire and  Lord  Western's  improved  Essex  pigs.  Their  chief  char- 
acteristics are  :  smallness  of  bone,  great  development  of  the  fleshy 
parts,  symmetry  of  form,  and  a  strong  propensity  to  fatten.  Al- 
though hearty  feeders,  a  small  quantity  of  food  suffices  for  them. 
When  matured  they  readily  attain  the  weight  of  from  400  to  500 
Ibs. 

LINCOLNSHIRE. 

The  true  Lincolnshire  pigs  are  white,  with  long,  straight  bodies, 
round  carcasses,  fine  skins,  and  few  bristles ;  the  heads  are  well 
formed  and  of  moderate  size,  and  the  ears  erect,  pointing  somewhat 
forward,  and  curling  slightly  at  the  tips  ;  the  hair  is  long  and  fine, 
but  scanty.  This  breed  was  formerly  considered  as  superior  to  any 
but  the  Berkshire  in  point  of  form  and  value,  they  being  easily  fat- 
tened, and  the  flesh  being  tender,  and  of  a  fine  flavor  ;  with  care 
they  will  reach  600  to  700  Ibs. ;  and  many,  at  a  year  and  a-half  old, 
will  weigh  350  to  400  Ibs.  They  certainly  do  not  attain  to  their 
maturity  as  early  as  some  of  the  smaller  breeds,  but  are,  notwith- 
standing this,  profitable  animals,  and  good,  sound,  handsome  stock. 
A  cross  between  the  Lincoln  and  Chinese  pig  is  productive  of  an 
animal  presenting  great  tendency  to  fatten,  and  a  small  eater. 

The  old  breed  of  this  county  are  long-legged,  narrow-backed,  un- 
gainly animals,  with  thick  skins,  covered  with  short,  thick  hair ;  the 
head  is  large,  the  forehead  wide,  and  the  ears  set  far  apart.  They 
are  far  from  profitable  animals,  being  enormous  eaters,  and  fattening 
but  poorly  ;  few  attain  a  greater  weight  than  250  to  280  Ibs, 

DERBYSHIRE. 

Here  there  is  no  prevailing  breed.  The  greater  part  of  the  pigs 
kept  in  this  county  come  from  Cheshire  and  Shropshire,  and  these 
tre  either  left  in  their  pure  state,  or  crossed  with  some  of  the  small 


80 


THE    HOG. 


English  or  foreign  breeds,  according  as  the  taste  or  circumstances 
of  the  farmer  or  breeder  leads  him  to  prefer  large  or  small  animals. 

LEICESTERSHIRE. 

The  old  Leicestershire  breed  was  a  perfect  type  of  the  original 
K/gs  of  the  midland  counties ;  large,  ungainly,  slab-sided  animals, 
of  a  light  color,  and  spotted  with  brown  or  black.  The  only  good 
parts  about  them  were  their  head  and  ears,  which*  showed  greater 
traces  of  breeding  than  any  other  parts.  Mr.  Bakewell  improved 
them,  and  the  variety  thus  obtained  was  called  after  him,  and  was 
superior  in  value  and  beauty  to  the  old  stock.  Within  the  last  few 
years  various  crosses  have  been  tried,  and  the  original  breed  is  now 
fast  losing  all  its  peculiarities  and  defects. 


The  Essex  pigs,  too,  have  been  indebted  for  their  improvement  to 
crosses  with  the  foreign  breeds,  and  especially  the  Neapolitan,  and 


LORD    WESTERN  6   ESSEX   BREED. 


with  the  Berkshire  swine.     They  are  mostly  black  and  white,  the 
head  and  hinder  parts  being  black,  and  the  back  and  belly  white ; 


SWINE  IN  ENGLAND. 


81 


they  have  smaller  heads  than  the  Berkshire  pigs,  and  Icng  thin  up- 
right  ears,  short  hair,  a  fine  skin,  good  hind  quarters,  and  -a  deep 
round  carcass ;  they  are  also  small-boned,  and  the  flesh  is  delicate 
and  well-flavored.  They  produce  large  litters,  but  are  bad  nurses. 

The  most  esteemed  Essex  breeds  are  entirely  black,  and  are  dis- 
tinguished by  having  small  teat-like  appendages  of  the  skin  depend 
ing  from  the  under  part  of  the  neck,  which  are  commonly  termed 
wattles.  Some  of  these  animals  will  attain  the  weight  of  480  Ibs., 
but  they  are  not,  according  to  some  breeders,  quick  fatteners ;  while 
others  prize  them  for  their  rapid  growth  and  aptitude  to  lay  on  flesh, 
as  well  as  for  its  excellence ;  it  forms  small  and  delicately-flavored 
pork.  Lord  Western  has  been  the  great  improver  of  the  Essex 
pigs,  and  his  breed  is  highly  esteemed  throughout  the  kingdom. 

Some  Essex  pigs,  at  only  23  weeks  old,  carried  off  one  of  the 
prizes  at  the  Smithfield  Club  Cattle  Show  of  1846. 

SUFFOLK. 

The  old  pigs  of  this,  county  are  white  in  color,  long-legged,  long 
bodied,  and  narrow  back,  with  broad  foreheads,  short  hams,  and  an 


A  SUFFOLK   BOAR,  THE   PROPERTY    OF    HIS    LATE    MAJESTY   WILLIAM   IT. 

abundance  of  bristles.     They  are  by  no  means  profitable  animals. 


82  THE  HOG. 

Lord  Western's  improved  Essex  breed  is  much  esteemed  in  Suffolk, 
and  so  are  the  Lincolnshire  hogs. 

A  cross  between  the  Suffolk  and  Lincoln  has  produced  a  hardy 
animal,  which  fattens  kindly,  and  will  attain  the  weight  of  from  400 
to  550  and  even  700  pounds.  Another  cross,  much  approved  by 
farmers,  is  that  of  the  Suffolk  and  Berkshire.  On  the  whole,  there 
are  few  better  breeds  to  be  found  in  the  kingdom,  perhaps,  than  the 
improved  Suffolk  pigs ;  they  are  well-formed,  compact,  short-legged, 
hardy  animals,  equal  in  point  of  value  to  the  best  of  the  Essex,  and 
superior  in  constitution,  and  consequently  better  adapted  for  general 
keep,  and  especially  for  the  cottager.  The  greater  part  of  the  pigs 
at  Prince  Albert's  farm,  near  Windsor,  are  of  the  improved  Suffolk 
breed ;  that  is  to  say,  the  Suffolk  crossed  with  the  Chinese.  They 
are  medium  in  size-,  with  round,  bulky  bodies,  short  legs,  small  heads, 
and  fat  cheeks.  Those  arising  from  the  Berkshire  and  Suffolk  are 
not  so  well  shaped  as  those  derived  from  the  Chinese  and  Suffolk, 
being  coarser,  longer-legged,  and  more  prominent  about  the  hips. 
They  are  mostly  white,  with  thin,  fine  hair ;  some  few  are  spotted, 
and  are  easily  kept  in  fine  condition  ;  they  have  a  decided  aptitude 
to  fatten  early,  and  are  likewise  valuable  as  store-pigs. 

Many  of  the  improved  Suffolk  breed  will,  at  a  year  or  fifteen 
months  old,  weigh  from  250  to  320  pounds ;  at  this  age  they  make 
fine  bacon  hogs.  The  sucking  pigs  and  porkers  are  also  very  deli- 
cate and  delicious. 


BEDFORDSHIRE. 

There  is  no  distinct  breed  in  this  county ;  the  animals  are  mostly 
Suffolk  or  Berkshire  pigs,  variously  crossed.  Some  of  the  best 
kinds  are  distinguished  for  their  aptitude  to  fatten  early,  and  on  a 
email  quantity  of  food. 

NORFOLK. 

The  pigs  of  this  county  do  not  materially  differ  from  those  Oi 
Lincolnshire,  but  are  rather  smaller.  They,  too,  are  white,  fine 
boned,  long-eared,  and  well-formed,  good  feeders,  and  yielding  fine 
meat.  This  is  especially  the  case  in  that  part  of  the  county  which 
approaches  Lincoln.  Various  breeds  and  varieties,  are,  however,  to 
be  met  with  in  Norfolk,  and  among  them  some  very  inferior  ani- 
mals. There  is  a  small  variety  resembling  the  Chinese,  and  pro- 
bably descended  from  that  breed,  which  is  peculiar  to  this  county, 
and  much  esteemed  for  its  aptitude  to  fatten  on  a  small  quantity  of 
food.  A  cross  between  the  Norfolk  and  Suffolk  pigs  produces  a  fine, 
hardy  animal. 


SWINK  IN  ENGLAND.  83 


NORTHAMPTONSHIRE. 

The  old  breed  of  Northamptonshire  were  large-bodied,  large-boned, 
bristly  animals,  covered  with  white,  coarse  hair.  Their  legs  were 
short'and  their  ears  very  long,  so  much  so  as  often  to  trail  upon  the 
ground.  They  were  capable  of  being  fattened  to  a  considerable  size, 
but  not  without  great  trouble  and  expense.  These  gave  place  to  a 
lighter-made  animal,  equally  large,  but  with  small  bones,  small  ears, 
and  greater  aptitude  to  fatten.  The  Bakewell  Leicester  pigs  are 
highly  esteemed  by  some  of  the  breeders  and  farmers  of  this  county. 

SHROPSHIRE. 

This  seems  to  have  been  only  another  variety  of  the  Northampton- 
shire pigs  ;  they  are  coarse,  ungainly  animals,  with  long  heads,  pend- 
ent ears,  arched  loins,  large  bones,  flat  sides,  many  bristles,  and 
coarse  wiry  hair ;  they  are  brindled,  or  of  a  dirty  white-gray,  or 
drab  color,  with  spots  of  black.  They  were  capable  of  being  fat- 
tened to  a  considerable  size,  and  might  be  made  at  two  years  old  to 
weigh  560  or  575  pounds ;  but  to  accomplish  this  an  abundance  of 
food  was  required.  They  are  by  no  means  adapted  for  farm  stock  ; 
but  brewers,  distillers,  and  those  who  have  large  quantities  of  refuse 
wash  and  grains,  hold  them  in  some  estimation.  Latterly  the  breed 
has  been  very  much  improved,  and  rendered  more  profitable,  by 
crossing  it  with  the  Berkshire,  Chinese,  and  other  esteemed  breeds, 
under  the  influence  of  which  the  most  salient  and  objectionable 
points  have  disappeared,  and  the  animals  are  now  short-legged,  fine- 
haired,  straight-backed,  and  thin-skinned,  white  in  color,  and  weigh- 
ing  200  pounds  at  two  years  old.  Lord  Forester  of  Willy  Park, 
and  Sir  F.  Lawly  of  Monkhopton,  are  in  possession  of  the  best 
breeds. 

CHESHIRE. 

The  old  breed  of  this  county  were  some  of  the  largest  swine  in 
England,  standing  from  three  and  a  half  to  four  and  a  half  feet  high. 
They  were  black  and  white,  white,  and  blue  and  white ;  long-bodied, 
narrow-backed,  slab-sided,  large-boned,  long-limbed  animals,  having 
large  heads,  drooping  ears,  of  such  a  size  as  scarcely  to  permit  them 
to  see  out  of  their  eyes,  and  loose  coarse-looking  skins.  Neverthe- 
less they  fatten  to  an  enormous  weight,  and  without  consuming  a 
comparatively  larger  amount  of  food  than  many  of  the  much  more 
esteemed  English  breeds.  One  excellent  variety  has  been  obtained 
by  a  cross  with  a  Berkshire  boar. 

Of  late  years,  however,  the  old  Cheshire  breed  has  almost  entirely 
disappeared,  and  been  replaced  by  a  fine  boned  round-bodied  ani- 


84  THE  HOG. 

mal,  longer  from  head  to  tail  and  wider  across  the  shoulders,  coming 
earlier  to  maturity  and  easily  fatten  ;  the  form  of  the  head,  too,  is 
improved,  and  the  ears  are  smaller  and  more  shapely.  These  ani- 
mals are  chiefly  derived  from  the  old  Berkshire  and  Cheshire  breeds 
with  an  occasional  and  judicious  cross  with  the  Chinese.  There  is, 
too,  a  slight  admixture  here  and  there  of  the  Leicestershire  blood. 
They  never  attain  to  the  size  or  weight  of  the  old  breeds,  but  their 
forms  are  more  compact,  their  flesh  finer  grained,  and  their  bones 
smaller.  They  are  considered  by  many  persons  to  be  equal  in 
value  in  all  points  to  any  breed  in  Europe. 

GLOUCESTERSHIRE. 

The  Gloucestershire  is  another  of  the  large  old  breeds,  gaunt,  long 
legged,  and  unprofitable,  of  a  dirty  white  color,  and  having  wattles 
depending  from  the  neck.  Tt  has  been  supposed  to  have  once  been 
the  prevailing  breed  in  England,  but  is  now  rapidly  disappearing 
before  the  alterations  produced  by  the  present  prevailing  system  of 
crossing  from  small  breeds. 

HEREFORDSHIRE. 

The  pigs  of  this  county  are  of  the  large  class,  similar  in  many  re- 
spects to  the  Shropshire  swine,  and  in  all  probability  produced  by  a 
cross  between  those  and  some  one  or  more  of  the  smaller  breeds ; 
for  they  are  smaller,  finer-boned  animals  than  the  Shropshire  pigs, 
have  better-shaped  heads  and  ears,  are  more  compact  in  form,  and 
have  greater  aptitude  for  fattening.  They  may,  in  fact,  be  fed  to  an 
enormous  size  ;  and  with  proper  management  will,  at  two  years  old, 
weigh  two  or  three  times  as  much  as  most  hogs  of  other  breeds  at 
the  same  age.  No  farmer  need  wish  to  possess  finer  and  more  pro- 
fitable animals  than  may  be  found  among  the  Herefordshire  pigs ; 
the  bacon  made  of  their  flesh  yields  in  excellence  to  none. 

latterly  this  breed  has  been  crossed  with  the  Berkshire,  and  the 
result  has  been  a  fine,  useful  animal,  possessing  numerous  good  points, 
but  not  much  superior  to  the  good  old  stock. 

WILTSHIRE. 

Here  the  old  breed  was  one  of  the  larger  class.  The  Wiltshire 
swine  were  long  in  the  body,  round  in  carcass,  hollow  about  the 
shoulders,  and  high  on  the  rump;  short-legged,  lirge-boned,  light- 
colored,  and  the  ears  were  large  and  pointed.  They  were,  like  most  of 
this  kind  of  pigs,  large  eaters  and  slow  to  fatten  ;  but  when  fat  attained 
a  fair  average  weight,  and  their  flesh  was  fine-grained  and  highly 
esteemed,  especially  as  bacon.  Crosses  with  the  Chinese  and  Nes- 


SWINE   IN   ENGLAND.  &> 

politan  breeds  have,  however,  much  improved  the  original  race ;  they 
are  now  smaller  boned,  not  so  large  in  size,  and  fatten  earlier  and 
more  readily. 

CORNWALL. 

The  CORNISH  BREED. — Here  again,  the  march  of  improvement  is 
decidedly  evident ;  the  old  Cornish  hog,  a  large,  white,  long-sided, 
heavy-boned,  razor-backed  animal,  possessing  but  little  aptitute  to 
fatten,  is  nearly  extinct ;  and  in  its  place  we  see  a  compact,  well-made 
pig,  fattening  kindly,  coming  early  to  maturity,  and  yielding  in  excel- 
lence and  value  to  few.  This  variety  has  been  produced  by  crossing 
the  old  breed  with  the  Berkshire,  Chinese,  Essex,  Leicester,  and  Nea- 
politan pigs.  These  animals  require  little  food  beyond  vegetables  and 
the  farm-house  wash,  excepting  at  the  period  of  fattening,  when  about 
3  bushels  of  barley  will  suffice  to  bring  them,  at  nine  months  old,  to 
the  weight  of  from  350  to  400  pounds. 


BERKSHIRE. 

The  Berkshire  pigs  belong  to  the  large  class,  and  are  distinguished 
by  their  color,  which  is  a  sandy  or  whitish  brown,  spotted  regularly 
with  dark  brown  or  black  spots,  and  by  their  having  no  bristles.  The 
hair  is  long,  thin,  somewhat  curly,  and  looks  rough ;  the  ears  are 
fringed  with  long  hair  round  the  outer  edge,  which  gives  them  a  rag- 
ged or  feathery  appearance ;  the  body  is  thick,  compact,  and  well- 
formed  ;  the  legs  short,  the  sides  broad,  the  head  well  set  on,  the 
snout  short,  the  jowl  thick,  the  ears  erect,  the  skin  exceedingly  thin 
in  texture,  the  flesh  firm  and  well-flavored,  and  the  bacon  very  su- 
perior. This  breed  of  pigs  has  been  generally  considered  to  be  one 
of  the  best  in  England,  on  account  of  its  smallness  of  bone,  early 
maturity,  aptitude  to  fatten  on  little  food,  hardihood,  and  the  females 
being  such  good  breeders.  Although  termed  the  Berkshire  breed, 
these  pigs  have  been  reared  in  various  parts  of  the  kingdom  ;  and 
some  of  the  very  best  have  come  from  Staffordshire,  from  the  pro- 
geny of  the  celebrated  Tamworth  boar.  In  Leicestershire,  also,  is  a 
very  fine  race  of  them,  descending  from  the  stock  of  Richard  Astley, 
E-sq.,  who  devoted  much  care  to  the  improvement  of  the  Berkshire 
pigs.  Hogs  of  the  pure  original  breed  have  V»een  known  to  attain 
to  an  immense  size,  and  weigh  as  much  as  800  to  950  pounds. 

One  bred  at  Petworth  measured  seven  feet  seven  inches  from  the 
tip  of  his  snout  to  the  root  of  his  tail,  and  seven  feet  ten  inches  in 
girth  round  the  centre  ;  five  foct  round  the  neck,  ten  inches  round 
the  thinnest  part  of  the  hind  leg,  and  two  feet  across  the  widest  part 
of  the  back.  He  stood  three  feet  nine  inches  high ;  and,  what  wag 
most  remarkable  in  this  monstrous  animal,  he  did  not  consume  more 


86 


THE  HOG. 


than  two  bushels  and  three  pecks  of  ground  oats,  peas,  and  barley 
per  week. 

Parkinson,  in  his  Live  Stock,  vol.  ii.,  gives  some  extraordinary 
accounts  of  the  size  and  weight  attained  by  individuals  of  this  breed, 
and  the  profit  yielded  by  them,  and  also  of  their  aptitude  to  fatten 
at  grass. 

They  are  not,  however,  generally  of  an  enormous  size,  being  much 
smaller  than  several  of  the  older  breeds;  their  ordinary  weight 
averages  from  250  to  300  pounds,  and  some  will  at  two  years  old 
weigh  400  pounds. 


BERKSHIRE    SOW. 

It  would  be  impossible  to  give  an  account  of  the  numerous  crosses 
from  this  breed  ;  the  principal  foreign  ones  are  those  with  the  Chi- 
nese and  Neapolitan  swine,  made  with  the  view  of  decreasing  the 
size  of  the  animal,  and  improving  the  flavor  of  the  flesh,  and  render- 
ing it  more  delicate ;  and  the  animals  thus  obtained  are  superior 
to  almost  any  others  in  their  aptitude  to  fatten,  but  are  very  sus- 
ceptible of  cold  from  being  almost  entirely  without  hair.  A  cross 
of  the  Berkshire  with  the  Suffolk  and  Norfolk  pigs  also  is  much 
approved  in  some  parts  of  the  country.  A  hardy  kind  is  thus  pro- 
duced, which  yields  well  when  sent  to  the  butcher ;  but  even  the 
advocates  of  this  cross  allow  that,  under  most  circumstances,  the 
pure  Berkshire  is  the  best. 


SWINE  IN  ENGLAND.  87 


HAMPSHIRE. 

Here  there  are  two  varieties,  the  one  larger  than  the  other ,  in 
color  they  are  either  white  or  black  and  white,  with  long  necks  and 
bodies,  flat  sides,  and  large  bones.  The  smaller  variety  are  more 
easily  fattened  to  a  considerable  size  and  weight,  and  make  excellent 
bacon,  but  the  larger  kind  require  an  extra  amount  of  food  to  bring 
them  to  perfection,  although  when  this  object  is  attained  they  will 
often  weigh  from  600  to  800  Ibs. 

Considerable  improvement  has  however  been  latterly  effected  by 
crosses  of  the  Berkshire,  Chinese,  Essex,  and  Suffolk  pigs,  with  the 
large  old  Hampshire  hog.  The  animals  resulting  from  these  in- 
termixtures are  better  shaped  and  more  profitable;  in  fact,  they 
bear  about  them  the  characteristics  of  the  breed  from  which  they 
were  obtained.  There  is  also  a  third  variety  of  swine  found  in 
Hampshire,  called  the  "  Forest  pigs,"  differing  materially  from  the 
true  Hampshire  breeds,  and  in  many  points  strongly  resembling  the 
wild  boar,  from  which  it  is  not  improbable  they  derived  their  de- 
scent, for  the  last  wild  boars  known  to  be  at  liberty  in  England  were 
those  turned  into  the  New  Forest  by  Charles  I.,  and  which  he  ob- 
tained from  Germany  with  a  view  to  the  reintroduction  of  the  fine 
old  sport  of  boar-hunting.  The  Forest  pig  is  broad-shouldered  and 
high-crested  ;  light  and  lean  in  the  hinder  quarters  ;  has  a  bristly 
mane  and  erect  ears ;  is  of  a  dark  or  blackish  color ;  and  lives 
chiefly  on  beech-mast  and  acorns.  This  breed  is  no  favorite  in  Hamp- 
shire ;  the  animals  are  wild,  fierce,  not  apt  to  fatten,  and,  from  their 
peculiar  make,  do  not  cut  up  to  advantage  when  killed ;  it  is,  how- 
ever, ROW  losing  its  distinctive  characteristics,  and  becoming,  as  it 
were,  more  civilized  or  domesticated. 

SUSSEX. 

The  breed  of  this  county  are  by  some  authors  supposed  to  have 
descended  from  the  large  spotted  Berkshire  swine;  while  others 
assert  them  to  be  a  variety  of  the  black  and  white  Essex  pig,  if  not 
the  original  stock.  They  are  of  a  moderate  size,  handsomely  formed, 
thin-skinned,  and  black  and  white ;  not,  however,  spotted,  but  white 
at  one  extremity  and  black  at  the  other.  The  hair  is  fine  and  long, 
but  spare ;  the  head  long  and  tapering ;  the  ears  well  set  on,  and 
pointing  forwards  ;  the  eyes  quick  and  vivacious  ;  and  the  snout  fine. 
The  chief  fault  in  their  make  is,  that  the  bones  are  somewhat  too 
large.  They  grow  quickly,  feed  well,  fatten  kindly,  and  will,  when 
full-sized,  weigh  from  250  to  350  Ibs. 

Some  of  the  finest  pigs  of  this  kind  ever  reared  were  ir  the  pos- 
session of  the  Western  family,  at  Felix  Hall,  Essex. 


88 


THE   HOG 


In  speaking  of  the  breeds  of  pigs  belonging  to  this  county,  we 
must  not  omit  the  now  extinct  Rudgwick  swine,  which  derived  their 
name  from  a  village  in  Sussex,  and  were  some  of  the  largest  hogs 
produced  in  England.  They  fattened  but  slowly,  and  were  conse- 
quently deemed  unprofitable,  but  yielded  excellent  meat  and  in  con- 
siderable quantities.  They  have,  however,  passed  away  before  the 
alterations  produced  by  the  general  aim  of  the  present  system  of 
breeding. 


THE    CHINESE  SWINE 


Although  these  have  been  already  noticed  when  speaking  of  Asia, 
we  cannot  now  pass  them  over,  as  they  actually  form  one  of  the 
recognized  stock  breeds  of  England.  There  are  two  distinct  varie- 


CHINESE    PIG. 
From  a  Sow  sent  direct  from  China  to  William  Ogilvy,  Esq.,  Hon.  Sec.  Zool.  Soc. 

ties,  the  white  and  the  UacJc ;  both  fatten  readily,  but  from  their 
diminutive  size  attain  no  great  weight.  They  are  small  in  limb, 
round  in  body,  short  in  the  head,  wide  in  the  cheek,  and  high  in  the 
chine  ;  covered  with  very  fine  bristles  growing  from  an  exceedingly 
thin  skin  ;  and  not  peculiarly  symmetrical,  for,  when  fat,  the  head  is 
so  buried  in  the  neck  that  little  more  than  the  tip  of  the  snout  is  visi- 


SWINE  IN  IRELAND.  89 

ble.  The  pure  Chinese  hog  is  too  delicate  and  susceptible  of  cold 
ever  to  become  a  really  profitable  animal  in  this  country  ;  it  is  dif- 
ficult to  rear,  and  the  sows  are  not  good  nurses ;  but  one  or  two 
judicious  crosses  have  in  a  manner  naturalized  it. 

This  breed  will  fatten  readily,  and  on  a  comparatively  small  quan- 
tity of  food ;  and  the  flesh  is  exceedingly  delicate,  but  does  not 
make  good  bacon,  and  is  often  too  fat  and  oily  to  be  generally 
esteemed  as  pork.  They  are  chiefly  kept  by  those  who  rear  suck- 
ing-pigs for  the  market,  as  they  make  excellent  roasters  at  three 
weeks  or  a  month  old.  Some  authors  point  out  five,  some  seven 
varieties  of  the  Chinese  breed,  but  these  are  doubtless  the  results  of 
different  crosses  with  our  native  kinds ;  among  these  are  black, 
white,  black  and  white,  spotted,  and  blue  and  white,  or  sandy.  Many 
valuable  crosses  have  been  made  with  these  animals ;  for  the  preva- 
lent fault  of  the  old  English  breeds  having  been  coarseness  of  flesh, 
unwieldiness  of  form,  and  want  of  aptitude  to  fatten,  an  admixture 
of  the  Chinese  breed  has  materially  corrected  these  defects.  Most 
of  our  smaller  breeds  are  more  or  less  indebted  to  the  Asiatic  swine 
for  their  present  compactness  of  form,  the  readiness  with  which  they 
fatten  on  a  small  quantity  of  food,  and  their  early  maturity  ;  but 
these  advantages  are  not  considered  by  some  persons  as  sufficiently 
great  to  compensate  for  the  diminution  in  size,  the  increased  deli- 
cacy of  the  animals,  and  the  decrease  of  number  in  the  litters.  The 
best  cross  is  between  the  Berkshire  and  the  Chinese, 
mmm 

IRELAND. 

Here  the  hog  is,  in  the  fullest  sense  of  the  word,  a  domesticated  ani- 
mal. The  Irish  pig  is  born  in  the  warmest  nook  of  his  master's  cabin, 
reared  among  the  children,  and  often  far  better  fed  and  more  care- 
fully tended  than  the  ragged  urchins  who  play  around  him,  for  the 
peasant  will  half  starve  himself  and  children  in  order  to  have  more 
food  for  his  pig ;  and  while  the  former  have  only  potatoes,  and  few 
enough  of  them,  the  porker  frequently  gets  not  only  a  good  meal 
of  potatoes,  but  some  porridge,  or  bran,  or  refuse  vegetables  in  ad- 
dition. He  isi  in  fact  the  chief  person  in  the  household ;  on  him  the 
poor  man  reckons  for  the  payment  of  his  rent  or  the  purchase  of  the 
necessaries  of  life.  Swine  abound  in  all  parts  of  Ireland  ;  scarcely 
a  peasant's  cot  but  numbers  a  pig  among  the  family  ;  and  the  roads, 
lanes,  and  fields  in  the  neighborhood  of  every  village,  and  the 
suburbs  of  every  large  town,  are  infested  with  a  grunting  multitude. 

Until  lately,  however,  notwithstanding  the  value  set  on  these  ani- 
mals, the  real  Irish  pig  was  a  huge,  gaunt,  long-legged,  slab-sided, 
roach-backed,  coarse-boned,  grisly  brute ;  with  large  flapping  eara 
which  almost  wholly  shrouded  the  face  ;  of  a  dirty  white,  or  black 
and  white  color  with  harsh  coarse  hair,  and  bristles  that  almost 


90  THE  HOG. 

stood  erect.  It  was  also  far  from  being  a  profitable  animal,  requiring 
a  very  considerable  quantity  of  food,  and  when  fat  producing  only 
coarse-grained  meat.  But  since  the  facility  of  export  has  become 
greater,  considerable  improvement  has  been  effected  by  the  introduo 
tion  of  Berkshire  and  Chinese  boars  and  sows,  and  crossing  the  old 
breed  pretty  extensively  with  these.  Thus  the  unwieldiness  of  size 
and  coarseness  of  bone  have  been  diminished,  and  greater  aptitude 
for  fattening  communicated,  which  latter  qualification  is  invaluable  to 
the  poor  peasant.  There  is,  however,  great  room  for  still  further 
improvement,  and  we  trust  that  before  long  some  enterprising  indi- 
viduals will  devote  their  energies  to  the  task,  and  thus  become  the 
means  of  bestowing  a  great  benefit  on  the  peasantry  of  the  "  sister 
isle." 

Steam  navigation  has  wonderfully  increased  the  trade  in  pigs  be- 
tween England  and  Ireland,  for  we  find  that  in  1821  only  104,501 
of  these  animals  were  brought  into  Liverpool ;  while  in  1837, 
595,422  were  imported.  The  cost  of  conveyance  has  been  so  mate- 
rially decreased  by  the  facility  of  steamboat  and  railway  convey- 
ance, that  this  is  not  at  all  to  be  wondered  at. 

Irish  pork  or  bacon  is  not  so  fine-grained  or  so  finely  flavored  as 
the  English ;  and  although  imported  in  considerable  quantities,  sells 
for  a  much  lower  price  than  our  own.  This  has  been  attributed  by 
some  to  the  pigs  being  entirely  fattened  on  potatoes,  but  it  is  also 
referable  to  the  innate  coarseness  of  the  animals  themselves. 

Martin  says  :*  The  improvement  in  our  breeds  of  domestic  swine 
during  the  last  few  years  has  been  very  decided.  And  not  only  so ; 
the  general  system  of  crossing  now  pursued,  tends  to  the  establish- 
ment of  a  uniform  race  throughout  every  county,  that  is,  a  race 
presenting  the  same  outstanding  characteristics.  Changes  are  ra- 
pidly taking  place,  and  the  fear  is,  that  the  improvements  may  be 
carried  so  far  as  to  result  in  the  formation  of  a  stock  of  animals 
smaller  in  size  than  comports  with  utility,  and  delicate  in  constitution. 
We  say  there  is  a  fear  of  this :  at  the  same  time,  we  well  know  that 
the  farmer  will  not  lose  sight  of  his  own  interests.  It  cannot  be 
denied  that  our  breeds,  for  ages  occupiers  of  the  land  once  tenanted 
by  their  wild  and  fierce  progenitors,  needed  great  alteration.  They 
were  large,  coarse,  unthrifty  animals,  with  a  long  broad  snout,  large 
flapping  ears,  low  in  the  shoulders,  long  in  the  back,  flat-sided,  long  in 
the  limbs,  and  large-boned,  with  a  thick  hide  covered  with  coarse  bris- 
tles. Their  color  was  generally  white  or  yellowish,  sometimes  more 
or  less  spotted  with  black.  They  were  enormous  feeders,  but  slow 
fatteners,  consuming  more  food  than  was  repaid  by  their  flesh.  At 
the  same  time,  the  females  were  peculiarly  fertile,  and  this  is  almost 
the  only  thing  that  can  be  said  in  their  praise. 

Such,  then,  was  the  old,  coarse,  uncouth  breed,  spread,  with  trifling 

*  What  follows,  to  page  100,  is  by  Martin. 


THE  HOG  AS  A  DOMESTIC  ANIMAL.  91 

degrees  of  difference,  over  the  greater  part  of  England.  In  tho 
northern  counties,  and  especially  in  the  north  of  Scotland,  a  smaller 
race,  with  sharp  and  almost  erect  ears,  greatly  resembling  the  wild 
boar  in  form,  long  existed,  and  is  yet  extant.  These  animals  were 
dusky  or  brownish-black,  wild  in  their  habits,  and  very  hardy.  We 
say  were,  but  in  fact  such  is  still  the  race  in  the  Orkneys  and  He- 
brides. They  are  small,  rough,  semi-wild  beasts,  depending  princi- 
pally upon  their  own  means  of  gaining  a  subsistence,  and  are 
evidently  the  descendants  of  a  wild  stock.  Their  degeneracy  in  size 
may  be  attributed  to  climate  and  deficiency  of  nutrition  while  young ; 
for  when  brought  into  more  southern  districts,  and  fed  in  the  ordinary 
way,  they  rapidly  acquire  an  increase  in  size,  fatten  kindly,  and 
return  excellent  meat. 

These  mountain  hogs  are  in  tolerable  condition  after  their  summer 
fare,  and  should  be  killed  in  autumn.  During  the  long  rigorous 
winter  these  animals  must  suffer  extremely,  and  in  some  islands  many 
probably  perish. 

This  breed,  which  not  a  century  since  was  common  in  the  High- 
lands, where  vast  herds  were  kept  for  the  sake  of  sale  in  the  Lowlands, 
is  less  thoroughly  reclaimed  than  were  the  old  gaunt  flap-eared  breeds 
of  England.  The  latter  had  undergone  a  certain  degree  of  modifi- 
cation long  before  the  improvements  effected  in  modern  days. 
Among  these  old  breeds  was  one  described  by  Mr.  George  Culley  ; 
it  prevailed  in  Yorkshire  and  Lancashire;  the  animals  were  of  large 
size,  and  white,  with  huge  ears  hanging  over  their  eyes.  "  They  were 
very  plain,  thin,  awkward  hogs,  with  very  long  legs ;  but  what  dis- 
tinguished them  most  was  two  wattles  or  dugs,  not  unlike  the  teats 
of  a  cow's  udder,  which  hung  down  from  their  throats,  one  on  each 
side."  This  breed  appears  to  be  altogether  extinct  in  our  island. 

It  is  not  often  that  we  now  hear  of  hogs  of  enormous  size  being 
slaughtered ;  formerly*  such  overgrown  monsters  were  not  uncom- 
mon. The  old  Berkshire  breed,  which  in  its  improved  state  still 
belongs  to  the  class  of  large  swine,  not  unfrequently  produced  huge 
specimens.  The  surprising  weight  that  some  of  these  hogs  have 
been  fed  to,  would  be  altogether  incredible,  if  we  had  it  not  so  well 
attested.  Mr.  Young,  in  one  of  his  Tours,  gives  an  account  of  a  hog 
in  Berkshire  which  was  fed  to  1130  Ibs. ;  but  a  still  more  extraor- 
dinary pig  was,  some  years  since,  killed  in  Cheshire  : — "  On  Monday, 
the  24th  of  January,  1774,  a  pig  (fed  by  Mr.  Joseph  Lawton,  of 
Cheshire)  was  killed,  which  measured  from  the  end  of  the  nose  to 
the  end  of  the  tail,  3  yards  8-  inches,  and  in  height  4  feet  5J  inches ; 
it  weighed  12  cwt.  2  qrs.  and  10  Ibs.  when  alive  (1410  Ibs.) ;  when 
killed  and  dressed,  it  weighed  10  cwt.  3  qrs.  and  11  Ibs.  avoirdu- 
pois (1215  Ibs  )  This  pig  was  killed  by  James  Washington,  butcher 
in  Congleton,  in  Cheshirvj." — Cullct/,  on  Live  Stock. 

In  the  month  of  December,  1846,  a  large  hog  was  slaughtered  at 


92  THE  HOG. 

Buxton.  It  was  white,  and  two  years  and  two  months  old.  Its 
height  was  3  feet  9  inches,  the  carcass  when  dressed  weighed  660 
pounds,  exclusive  of  fat  to  the  amount  of  98  pounds.  It  was  fattened 
upon  Indian  meal,  pea-meal,  &c.  It  was  of  the  improved  old  Che- 
shire breed. 

In  taking  a  survey  of  our  improved  breeds,  we  can  do  little  more 
than  generalize,  although  a  few  breeds  may  require  a  somewhat 
particular  notice ;  we  mean  those  to  which  other  strains  owe  their 
improvement. 

Among  the  early  improvers  of  swine  must  be  enumerated  Mr. 
Bakewell.  Before  his  time  the  Leicestershire  hogs  were  of  the  same 
coarse  ungainly  kind  which  prevailed  generally  throughout  the  mid  • 
land  counties.  He  commenced  by  a  judicious  selection  of  stock 
destined  for  breeding,  and  by  persevering  in  this  system  greatly 
modified  the  characters  of  the  old  race ;  in  due  time  the  Bakewell 
breed  extended  into  other  counties,  superseding  or  influencing  the 
ordinary  races.  This  was  the  case  in  Yorkshire,  the  old  breed  of 
which  county  was  of  large  size,  gaunt,  greedy,  and  unthrifty,  coarse 
in  the  quality  of  the  meat,  flat-sided  and  huge-boned.  By  crossing 
with  the  new  Leicester  stock  great  improvement  was  soon  effected ; 
the  cross-breed  lost  in  size  but  gained  in  every  good  qualitv;  it 
became  deep-sided,  short-limbed,  small-boned,  and  fattened  readily. 
The  coarse  wiry  bristles  were  exchanged  for  fine  thin  hair,  and  the 
whole  aspect  of  the  animal  underwent  a  transformation.  The  hogs 
at  about  two  years  old  averaged  from  420  to  840  Ibs., .  younger 
animals  weighing  in  proportion. 

Some  of  the  Yorkshire  breeders  preferred  the  pure  new  Leices- 
ters,  and  these  are  still  reared  by  judicious  farmers,  who  esteem  them 
as  superior  to  most  others,  and  certainly  more  profitable  than  most 
of  the  larger  kinds.  They  fatten  kindly,  often  attaining  the  weight 
of  upwards  of  420  Ibs.,  at  the  age  of  sixteen  or  eighteen  months. 
Other  breeds,  however,  besides  the  new  Leicester,  have  found  advo- 
cates in  Yorkshire :  among  these  are  the  Berkshire,  crosses  between 
which  and  the  Yorkshire  are  deservedly  esteemed,  as  are  also  crosses 
between  the  Yorkshire  and  Lord  Western's  improved  Essex  variety. 
The  latter  cross  is  remarkable  for  smallness  of  bone,  rotundity  of 
figure,  and  aptitude  for  fattening.  The  hogs  when  fat  average  420 
Ibs.  The  Chinese  and  the  Neapolitan  pigs  have  been  tried  by  several 
breeders,  and  judicious  crosses  between  these  and  the  Yorkshire  race 
are  excellent,  both  as  regards  good  symmetry  and  fattening  quali- 
ties. In  fact,  the  large  old  Yorkshire  stock  may  be  regarded  as 
extinct. 

The  new  Leicesters,  even  in  their  own  county,  have  undergone 
modification  since  the  time  of  Mr.  BakewelL  Excellent  crosses 
have  been  made  between  them  and  the  Berkshire  and  Essex  breeds. 

The  improved  Berkshire  hog  belongs  "to  the  tribe  of  large  swine. 


THE  HOG  AS  A  DOMESTIC   ANIMAL  93 

or,  perhaps,  rather  did.  Formerly,  hogs  of  the  pure  breed  were 
often  found  to  weigh  from  800  to  960  Ibs. ;  and  it  is  recorded  that 
one  bred  at  Petworth,  in  Sussex,  measured  7  feet  7  inches  from  the 
tip  of  the  snout  to  the  root  of  the  tail,  7  feet  10  inches  in  girth  round 
the  centre,  5  feet  round  the  neck,  and  2  feet  across  the  span  of  the 
back.  Height  3  feet  9  inches.  It  was  remarkable  that  this  huge 
animal  was  a  moderate  consumer  of  food;  his  allowance  being 
about  two  bushels  and  three  pecks  of  ground  oats,  peas,  and  barley, 
per  week. 

The  present  Berkshire  breed  are  moderate-sized  beasts,  roundly 
made,  short  in  the  limb,  and  with  a  short  arched  neck,  with  heavy 
cheeks,  sharp  ears,  an  abruptly-rising  forehead,  short  in  the  snout, 
well-barrelled,  broad-backed,  and  clean  in  the  limbs;  some  are 
sandy-colored  or  whitish,  spotted  with  black,  but  most  are  either 
white  or  black,  or  half  white  and  half  black,  a  coloring  indicative  of 
a  mixture  of  the  Neapolitan  and  the  Chinese,  as  well  as  of  the 
Suffolk  strain. 

We  believe  that  rather  small  (not  too  small)  and  quickly  fatten- 
ing breeds  are,  from  first  to  last,  the  most  profitable ;  indisputably 
they  afford  the  best  meat,  in  whatever  way  it  is  prepared. 

The  new  breeds  now  to  be  seen  in  Berkshire  are  but  thinly  clothed, 
and  are  said  to  be  somewhat  tender,  a  circumstance  in  that  sunny 
county  of  little  consequence,  for  the  farmer's  straw-yard  supplies 
abundant  shelter  and  comfort. 

Around  Henley  in  Oxfordsire,  on  the  banks  of  the  Thames,  and 
about  Dorking  in  Surrey,  cross  breeds  of  the  Berkshire  strain  pre- 
vail ;  although  in  the  latter  county  the  improved  Essex  breed  is 
held  in  great  estimation. 

There  are  few  counties  in  England  into  which  the  Berkshire  breed 
of  pigs  has  not  penetrated;  it  is  everywhere  valued  for  its  ex- 
cellent qualities,  its  fair,  moderate  size,  its  small  bones,  its  thin  skin, 
its  fattening  qualities,  and  excellence  of  its  flesh.  First-rate  hogs 
of  this  breed  have  been  reared  in  distant  counties.  Through  Mid- 
dlesex, Hartfordshire,  Bedfordshire,  and  Leicestershire,  the  Berk- 
shire breed  has  extended  itself,  modifying  the  old  races,  not  without 
other  crossings ;  indeed,  it  must  be  confessed  that  the  modern  sys- 
tem of  interbreeding  renders  it  difficult  to  tell  the  original  stock  on 
which  the  grafts  have  been  made  ;  or  rather,  what  strain  shows  itself 
the  most  prominently. 

In  Berkshire  it  is  the  general  custom  to  singe  the  hogs  after  being 
killed,  and  not  to  remove  the  bristles  by  means  of  hot  water  and 
scraping;  nor  do  they  as  a  rule  smoke  the  flitches  after  salting,  but 
merely  dry  them.  The  same  remark  applies  more  or  less  to  the 
adjacent  counties;  for  example,  the  bacon  sold  in  Henley  is  un- 
smoked.  In  fact,  the  taste  for  smoked  bacon  and  hams  seems  to  a 
certain  degree  to  be  confined  to  London,  as  far  as  England  is  con- 


94:  THE    HOG. 

cerned.  In  Derbyshire,  Cheshire,  Lancashire,  and  some  of  the 
neighboring  counties,  smoked  bacon  is  a  rarity.  However,  the  porky 
or  the  smoky  flavor  is  a  matter  of  taste. 

Wiltshire  is  celebrated,  and  deservedly,  for  bacon,  as  Yorkshire 
for  hams.  The  old  Wiltshire  hog  was  of  large  size,  short-limbed,  • 
but  heavily-boned,  long  in  the  body,  but  round  and  high  on  the 
croup.  The  ears,  though  large,  were  pointed.  These  animals  were 
slow  feeders,  and  great  consumers  of  food ;  nevertheless,  when  at 
some  cost  they  were  fattened,  they  produced  meat  of  excellent  qual- 
ity, especially  fitted  for  converting  into  bacon.  They  were  proba- 
bly a  mere  variety  of  the  Berkshire  strain,  and  certainly  possessed 
good  qualities ;  but  they  are  greatly  improved,  owing  to  the  judici- 
ous crossings  with  the  Chinese  and  Neapolitan  stocks  ;  and  though, 
as  might  be  anticipated,  they  are  smaller  in  stature  than  formerly, 
they  are  finer-boned,  more  compact  in  contour,  far  quicker  fatteners, 
and  consequently  ready  for  the  butcher  earlier.  At  the  same  time, 
the  superior  quality  of  the  meat  has  suffered  no  decline,  indeed 
quite  the  contrary.  Wiltshire  bacon  commands  a  high  price. 

The  Hampshire  are  excellent  hogs,  generally  black,  and  middle- 
sized,  with  rather  a  long  snout,  but  compactly  made  ;  are  a  modifi- 
cation of  the  old  large-sized  Hampshire  stock,  individuals  of  which 
in  former  days  were  of  huge  magnitude,  and  some  carried  about 
for  show.  This  colossal  breed  is  now  seldom  to  be  seen,  but  it  had 
its  good  points :  when  fattened  (and  time  and  much  food  were  re- 
quired to  effect  this)  it  returned  by  the  way  of  payment  a  weighty 
carcase.  As  in  all  such  cases,  however,  the  question  comes  in,  Was 
it  profitable?  Was  the  repayment  for  food  and  time  in  a  just  ratio? 
The  answer  must  be,  quick  fattening,  even  with  a  smaller  carcass,  a 
gain  of  time  and  of  provision  being  included,  is  one  of  the  points 
in  which  the  farmer  finds  himself  the  best  remunerated.  Slow 
feeders,  however  weighty  their  carcass  at  last,  will  not  be  found 
profitable  when  all  expenses  are  calculated.  The  present  Hamp- 
shire hog  is  compounded  of  the  old  race,  and  the  Essex,  the  Chinese, 
and  the  Neapolitan,  with  an  admixture  also  of  the  improved  Berk 
shire. 

A  semi-wild  breed  of  pigs  are  peculiar  to  the  New  Forest ;  they 
are  termed  Forest  pigs,  and  differ  materially  from  the  ordinary 
stock  cultivated  by  the  Hampshire  farmers.  Though  far  inferior  in 
size  to  the  true  wild  hog,  these  animals  exhibit  much  of  the  charac 
teristics  of  that  animal,  and  probably  owe  their  origin  to  a  cross  be 
tween  the  wild  hogs  introduced  into  the  forest  by  Charl'es  I.,  and 
some  of  the  ordinary  breeds  of  his  period.  These  animals  are 
heavy  in  the  fore  quarters,  but  light  and  meagre  behind  ;  the  withers 
are  high,  the  ears  short,  the  mane  thick  and  bristly,  the  color  black 
or  brindled ;  the  disposition  is  fierce  and  distrustful,  and  they  display 
extraordinary  activity  and  acuteness.  The  troops  are  headed  by 


THE   HOG  AS  A  DOMESTIC  ANIMAL.  95 

leaders,  which  take  alarm  at  the  slightest  appearance  of  danger,  and 
are  ready  on  an  emergency  to  act  on  the  defensive.  This  Forest 
breed,  however,  is  now  rarely  to  be  seen  in  its  purity — in  fact,  it  is 
passing  away,  cr  perhaps  rather  merging  into  a  more  domestic  and 
mingled  stock,  thereby  losing  its  pristine  characteristics. 

Lincolnshire  is  one  of  the  counties  noted  for  an  excellent  breed 
of  pigs.  The  old  race  were  gaunt,  slow-feeding,  unprofitable  animals, 
with  heavy  heads  and  flat  sides ;  but  the  improved  breed  of  the 
present  day  are  well-formed,  of  moderate  size,  easily  fattened,  and 
produce  excellent  flesh ;  they  are  white,  with  fine  skins,  and  spa- 
ringly covered  with  bristles,  which  are  slender ;  the  ears  are  erect 
and  pointed,  the  body  long,  straight,  and  round.  These  pigs,  deserv- 
edly esteemed,  may  be  fatted  to  about  630  Ibs.,  and  when  at  the 
age  of  a  year  and  a  half,  many  are  found  to  range  between  280  and 
420  Ibs.  A  cross  between  the  Lincoln  and  Chinese  breed — though  of 
diminished  size — is  found  to  attain  more  rapidly  to  maturity  than 
the  pure  Lincoln,  and  fattens  quickly  upon  a  very  moderate  allow- 
ance of  food. 

Norfolk  produces  excellent  pigs,  somewhat  smaller  than  those  of 
Lincolnshire,  but  closely  agreeing  with  them  in  characters ;  they  are 
well-formed,  fatten  quickly,  and  yield  fine  meat.  Besides  this  breed, 
a  smaller  race  prevails  in  many  parts  of  Norfolk,  descended,  as  it 
would  appear,  from  the  Chinese,  which  it  greatly  resembles.  These 
pigs  are  in  great  estimation  ;  they  fatten  readily  on  a  small  quantity 
of  food,  and  their  flesh  is  delicate. 

Suffolk,  now  noted  for  its  improved  breed,  formerly  possessed 
only  a  coarse,  lank,  and  thriftless  stock ;  but  this  has  given  place 
to  a  mixed  race,  admirable  for  symmetry,  and  quick  and  early  fat- 
tening. The  most  generally  approved  breed  is  a  cross  between  the 
Suffolk,  Berkshire,  and  Chinese.  These  animals  are  rather  small,  but 
compact,  short-legged,  and  small-headed ;  the  body  is  round,  and 
they  fatten  readily.  At  the  age  of  a  year,  or  a  year  and  a  half, 
many  are  found  to  weigh  from  240  to  300  Ibs.,  and  produce  first-rate 
bacon.  The  flesh  of  the  sucking-pigs  and  of  the  porkers  is  esteemed 
for  its  peculiar  delicacy. 

Besides  this  breed,  which  stands  first,  there  is  an  excellent  cross 
between  the  Suffolk  and  Lincoln  ;  the  pigs  attain  to  a  considerable 
weight,  ranging  frc*n  420  to  560  Ibs.  and  upwards  ;  they  are  hardy, 
and  fatten  readily.  Another  breed  is  between  the  Berkshire  and 
Suffolk,  and  this  has  its  admirers  ;  it  is  easily  kept  in  good  condition, 
fattens  quickly,  and  makes  excellent  bacon.  It  is,  however,  longer 
in  the  leg  and  less  compact  in  symmetry  than  the  tri-cross  between 
the  Suffolk,  Berkshire,  and  Chinese.  The  improved  Lincolnshire 
race  is  much  valued  in  Suffolk,  as  is  also  the  improved  Essex  breed, 
established  by  Lord  Western,  and  esteemed  throughout  the  kingdom. 
It  is  black,  short-nosed,  deep-jowled,  short  and  thick  in  the  neck,  with 


96  THE  HOG. 

email,  sharp  ears ;  the  limbs  are  short  and  fine-boned,  the  barrel  is 
rounded,  the  hams  very  full,  the  hair  is  spare  and  short,  the  skin 
fine;  some  have  small  wattles  or  appendages  of  skin  depending 
from  the  neck.  These  animals  fatten  quickly,  grow  rapidly,  and 
yield  very  superior  meat;  as  porkers  they  are  admirable,  the  meat 
being  peculiarly  delicate.  The  hogs,  when  fattened,  will  sometimes 
weigh  360  to  400  Ibs.,  often  250  to  280. 

This  black  breed  is  greatly  crossed  with  the  Neapolitan,  and  we 
believe  the  Sussex. 

A  modification  of  this  breed  is  oiten  seen  in  Essex  ;  the  pigs,  like 
the  Sussex,  are  generally  black  and  white — the  head  and  hinder 
parts  being  black,  and  the  central  portion  of  the  body  wrhite.  They 
are  admirable  in  shape,  with  a  deep  round  carcass,  and  fine  skin, 
fine  in  the  bone,  and  full  in  the  hind  quarters.  The  flesh  is  excellent. 
The  sows  produce  large  litters,  but  are  said  not  to  make  the  best 
nurses.  We  did  not,  however,  hear  this  complaint  from  any  of  the 
Essex  farmers,  during  our  frequent  visits  to  Rochford  and  the 
adjacent  country.  We  suspect,  however,  that  the  Essex  breed  is 
delicate,  and  requires  care,  as  indeed  do  all  high-bred  domestic 
quadrupeds. 

Sussex  possesses  a  breed  very  much  like  the  last  particolored 
race,  of  which  it  appears  to  be  a  variety.  These  pigs  are  well-made, 
of  middle  size,  with  a  thin  skin,  and  scanty  bristles ;  the  snout  is 
tapering  and  fine,  the  ears  upright  and  pointed,  the  jowl  deep,  the 
body  compactly  rounded.  These  pigs  arrive  early  at  maturity,  and 
fatten  quickly  ;  the  bacon  hogs  averaging  a  weight  of  280  Ibs.  The 
flesh  is  excellent.  Their  bone,  perhaps,  is  larger  than  in  the  Essex 
breed,  but  then  the  improved  stocks  of  this  latter  race  are  remark- 
able for  smallness  of  bone,  and  we  doubt  whether  they  are  more  bony 
than  the  improved  stocks  of  the  old  Berkshire  strain.  The  breed  is 
undoubtedly  valuable,  and  well  adapted  for  crossing  with  the  Essex, 
Neapolitan,  or  Chinese. 

Sussex  once  boasted  of  a  gigantic  race  of  pigs,  known  by  the  name 
of  the  Rudgwick  breed,  (Rudgwick  is  a  village  in  that  county,)  some 
of  which  were  among  the  largest  swine  ever  reared  in  our  island. 
As  is  the  case  with  all  huge  breeds,  these  animals  were  slow  feeders 
and  huge  feeders ;  but  yielded  an  enormous  weight  of  excellent 
meat.  Nevertheless,  they  became  more  and  more  influenced  by 
the  intercrossings  of  new  breeds,  till  at  length  the  old  stock  has  be- 
come obsolete,  its  celebrity  depending  upon  records  and  notices  of 
the  last  century. 

Bedfordshire  has  sent  some  admirable  pigs  to  the  great  cattle- 
shows  in  London.  Nevertheless,  the  animals  could  not  be  called 
truly  Bedfordshire  as  to  peculiarity  of  breed.  They  were  crosses 
of  various  kinds,  in  which,  as  it  appeared  to  us,  the  Suffolk  strain 
was  prevalent. 


THE   HOG  AS  A  DOMESTIC  ANIMAL.  97 

Crossings  and  intercross] ngs  are  everywhere  taking  place,  and  all 
the  old  stocks  have  become  so  altered,  that  the  hog  race  of  England 
is  generally  assuming  an  approach  to  universal  uniformity.  The 
modified  New  Leicesters  and  Yorkshires,  the  improved  Berkshires, 
the  Essex,  and  the  New  Suffolks,  with  various  intermixtures  of  the 
Chinese  and  the  Neapolitan  races,  are  everywhere  extending  them- 
selves. The  gaunt,  lanky,  old  breeds,  flat  in  the  sides  and  heavy  in 
the  bone,  are  now  rare,  and  regarded  as  curiosities. 

Among  this  diversity  of  intercrossings,  certain  strains  are  brought 
to  high  perfection  by  the  breeder's  skill  and  patience,  and  are  deemed 
the  highest  even  of  the  race  to  which  they  may  belong.  Thus,  for 
example,  in  Berkshire  we  have  the  Coleshill  strain,  the  pure  Wadley 
strain,  and  the  old  Crutchfield  strain ;  in  Essex  we  have  Lord  West- 
ern's strain  ;  and  the  same  observations  apply  to  other  counties. 
But  too  often  exorbitant  overloading  of  fat  is  too  much  regarded — a 
point  of  less  consequence  than  shape,  fertility,  and  aptitude  to  fatten 
upon  moderate  rations ;  inasmuch  as  the  wealthy  have  at  their  com 
mand  the  means  of  forcing  animals  unnaturally,  and  think  little  of 
the  waste  thereby  incurred  in  order  to  accomplish  their  object. 
Pigs  are  shown  not  only  incapable  of  standing,  but  also  of  seeing, 
from  the  enormous  volumes  of  fat  with  which  they  are  loaded. 
Such  an  accumulation  of  fat  is  in  itself  disease.  Think  what  must  be 
the  state  of  the  heart,  the  condition  of  the  circulation,  and  the  cha- 
racter of  the  muscular  fibres.  We  have  heard  of  mice  burrowing 
in  the  fat  of  such  animals,  without  appearing  to  occasion  any  pain  or 
inconvenience.  In  cattle-shows  there  is,  in  many  respects,  sufficient 
evidence  of  the  general  and  marked  improvement  which  has  taken 
place  in  this  class  of  domestic  animals  ;  but  we  form  our  judgment 
rather  from  those  which  show  their  points,  are  really  well  fed,  and 
not  fattened  up  till  they  appear  like  bloated  skins  of  lard — as  desti- 
tute of  definite  shape,  as  of  the  power  of  moving  about.  What  a 
waste  of  money  must  the  forcing  of  such  a  monster  occasion  !  The 
outlay  would  have  sufficed  to  bring  three  pigs  into  fine  and  profit- 
able condition.  And  what  is  the  object1?  To  show  in  how  short  a 
time  a  pig  can  be  rendered  a  mass  of  fat,  and  upon  what  sort  and 
quantity  of  food.  The  better  aim  would  be,  to  show  how  many 
pigs  could  be  well  fattened  in  a  given  time  upon  a  stipulated  quan- 
tity of  food — what  breeds  fattened  the  most  kindly,  and  would  be 
found  the  most  profitable. 

In  Shropshire,  Gloucestershire,  Cheshire,  Herefordshire,  Oxford- 
shire, and  other  counties,  the  old  races  of  pigs  have  passed  away, 
and  crosses  with  the  Berkshire,  and  also  with  the  Essex  and  the 
Chinese,  have  taken  their  place.  In  short,  the  change  is  universal ; 
and  even  in  the  southern  parts  of  Scotland,  where  formerly  but  few 
pigs  were  kept,  and  those  of  an  inferior  sort,  excellent  breeds  pre- 
vail, and  pigs  are  largely  reared  by  the  farmers. 
o 


98  THE   HOG. 

In  the  Channel  Islands — Jersey,  Guernsey,  Alderney,  and  Sark— 
the,  pig  is  an  important  animal,  pork  being  the  staple  animal  food 
of  the  Islanders  during  the  winter.  It  is  said  to  be  very  delicate, 
even  more  so  than  any  in  England.  Almost  every  cottager  keeps  a 
pig,  and  is  enabled  to  feed  it  the  more  easily,  as  his  garden  yields 
an  abundant  supply  of  produce. 

The  Channel  Island  breed,  once  gaunt  and  coarse,  and  of  French 
extraction,  is  now  greatly  improved,  and  fattens  rapidly.  The  pigs 
are  kept  in  styes,  and  fed  during  the  spring  and  summer  months  on 
buttermilk,  bran,  potatoes,  cabbages,  and  all  kinds  of  vegetables ; 
in  the  autumn,  almost  exclusively  upon  parsnips,  Bacon  hogs  are 
generally  killed  at  about  twenty  months  old,  and  average  from  300 
to  450  Ibs.  Sometimes,  hogs  attain  to  a  much  larger  size ;  and 
instances  have  been  known  in  which  they  have  weighed  640  Ibs., 
exclusive  of  the  offal. 

In  the  Isle  of  Man,  the  native  breed  closely  approaches  that  of  the 
Orkney  and  Shetland  Isles.  The  animals  resemble  the  wild  boar 
in  miniature,  and  roam  about  at  liberty  ;  yet  they  fatten  readily, 
and  yield  excellent  meat.  Within  the  last  few  years,  crosses  from 
England  have  been  introduced,  and  the  plan  of  sty-feeding  has  been 
practised  ;  but  not  with  much  success. 

It  is  now  time  that  we  turn  to  Ireland,  whence  so  much  of  the 
salted  pork  and  bacon  sold  in  England  is  exported. 

The  modern  Irish  pig  has,  within  the  last  few  years,  become  greatly 
improved.  Formerly,  it  was  a  gaunt,  flat-sided,  large-boned,  rough 
beast,  long  in  the  leg,  sharp  along  the  spine,  long  in  the  snout,  and 
with  huge  flapping  ears.  It  was  a  slow  feeder,  and  yielded  coarse 
meat.  Latterly,  the  introduction  of  some  of  our  best  breeds,  with 
which  to  cross  the  old  Irish  swine,  has  been  attended  with  decided 
success,  although  there  is  still  room  for  further  improvement.  The 
sides  are  sent,  roughly  salted,  to  certain  houses  in  London,  (and  other 
large  towns,)  and  are  there  finished  off  for  the  market. 

Irish  bacon  is  not  to  be  despised,  and,  as  we  have  said,  the  breed 
of  pigs  is  generally  much  improved.  Berkshire,  Suffolk,  Yorkshire, 
and  even  Chinese  boars  and  sows,  have  been  introduced,  and  by 
intercrossings,  produced  a  considerable  change — a  change,  however, 
neither  quite  so  decided  nor  quite  so  general  as  is  desirable.  Besides, 
the  plan  of  fattening  upon  potatoes  is  not  calculated  to  do  justice  to 
the  most  improved  stocks. 

The  Irish  bacon  is  not  of  such  good  quality  as  that  fed  in  Eng- 
land, as  the  animal  is  generally  fattened  on  potatoes  only,  while  the 
best  practice  here  is,  when  half  fat,  to  finish  off  with  peas-meal,  01 
barley-meal.  The  agricultural  laborers,  in  counties  where  their  con- 
dition is  most  comfortable,  know  that  it  is  most  profitable  to  buy 
the  higher-priced  English  bacon,  which  swells  in  the  boiling,  and  is 
at  once  more  palatable  and  substantial  than  the  potato-fed  bacon 


THE   HOG  AS  A  DOMESTIC   ANIMAL  99 

of  Ireland.  In  order  to  obtain  the  advantages  of  the  English  market, 
great  improvements  have  taken  place  in  the  breed  of  pigs  kept  in 
Ireland. 

As  the  Chinese  pig  is  naturalized  in  our  country,  a  few  remarks 
upon  it  may  not  be  out  of  place. 

The  Chinese  pig  is  seldom  kept  in  its  pure  state :  its  flesh  indeed 
is  exquisitely  delicate,  especially  that  of  tshe  sucking  pig :  and 
though  it  fattens  rapidly  and  at  little  cost,  yet,  from  the  unctuous 
character  of  the  fat,  the  sides  are  not  calculated  for  making  prime 
bacon.  Besides,  it  is  tender,  susceptible  of  cold,  and  difficult  to 
rear,  the  more  so  as  the  sows  do  not  generally  make  good  nurses. 
At  the  same  time,  as  a  source  of  improvement  among  our  indi- 
genous breeds,  by  judicious  intercrossings,  too  much  cannot  be  said 
in  its  praise ;  indeed,  it  has  been  one  of  the  most  successful  means 
of  introducing  reform  among  our  old  stocks ;  it  has  corrected  the 
faults  of  gauntness,  of  heavy  bones,  of  slow  feeding,  of  coarse  flesh, 
and  of  a  dense  skin.  True,  it  has  caused  a  reduction  in  size,  but  not 
in  hardiness,  by  its  intercrossing;  yet  what  advantages  have  not 
been  gained  by  that  very  practice  ? 

Thus  far  have  we  endeavored  to  illustrate  the  various  influential 
breeds  of  our  own  country,  including  Scotland,  Ireland,  and  the 
smaller  islands.  To  have  rigidly  analyzed,  or  rather  attempted  an 
analysis,  of  the  varieties  peculiar  to  each  county  or  district,  would- 
have  been  folly — the  thing  is  impossible.  Mixtures  and  intermix- 
tures are  perpetually  taking  place,  and  individuals  are  from  time  to 
time  establishing  their  own  favorite  crosses.  In  every  county  is 
this  system  of  improvement  in  operation  ;  the  whole  is  fluctuating, 
yet  the  broad  strong  current  bears  on  towards  improvement.  Ne- 
vertheless, in  this  tideway  impulse,  the  strong  hand  of  a  judicious 
steersman  is  the  more  necessary  :  the  mark  may  be  overshot.  We 
mean  that  deficiency  of  profitable  size,  weakness  of  constitution,  and 
infertility,  may,  unless  judgment  in  crossing  be  exercised,  detract 
from  the  merits  of  an  otherwise  most  valuable  stock. 

It  would  be  interesting,  could  we  truly  ascertain  the  amount  of 
property  invested  in  the  United  Kingdom,  not  only  in  the  porcine 
race,  but  in  other  descriptions  of  live  stock ;  all  the  attempts  of  the 
kind  are  merely  approximations,  yet  they  are  not  therefore  value- 
less— they  give,  at  least,  general  ideas  on  the  subject,  and  not  un- 
frequently  surprise  us. 

M'Queen,  in  his  Statistics  of  the  British  Empire,  has  thus  stated 
the  enormous  value  of  live  stock  in  the  United  Kingdom,  exclusive 
of  domestic  poultry  (by-the-bye  no  trifle.)  It  appears  that  there 
are  2,250,000  houses,  of  the  total  value  of  £67,000,000,  [the  pound 
sterling  is  $4  86,6]  of  which  more  than  1,500,000  are  used  in  agri 
culture,  and  valued  at  £45.000,000  ;  the  number  of  horned  cattle  in 
the  kingdom  is  about  14,000,000,  of  the  value  of  £216,000,000  ;  the 


100  THE  HOG. 

number  of  sheep  50,000,000,  whose  value  is  estimated  at  £67,000,000. 
The  extent  of  the  capital  invested  in  swine  is .  still  more  extraor- 
dinary, when  we  reflect  how  little  it  is  thought  upon  or  taken 
into  account.  The  number  of  pigs  of  all  ages,  rearing,  and  breed- 
ing, is  calculated  to  be  upwards  of  18,000,000,  which,  taking  one 
third  at  £2  each,  and  the  remainder  at  105.  each,  gives  a  value  of 
£18,870,000,  as  the  capital  invested  in  pigs  alone. 

This  is  of  course  only  an  approximation  to  the  truth,  for  the 
stock  of  all  our  domestic  quadrupeds  is  liable,  from  various  circum- 
Cu  instances,  both  to  increase  and  decrease  ;  nevertheless,  the  state- 
ment, with  every  deduction,  is  calculated  to  excite  some  degree  of 
surprise. — MARTIN. 


ANATOMY  AND  DISEASES  OF  THE  HOG. 


CHAPTER  VII. 


n.c  Skeleton  cf  the  Hog— Skull  and  Snout— Teeth— Brain— Apoplexy— Inflammation  of  tht 
Brain — Phremtis — The  Spinal  Cord— Epilepsy— Palsy  and  Paralysis — Tetanus — Rabies— Nasa. 
Catarrh— The  Larynx— The  Pharynx— The  Os  Hyoides— Strangles  and  Quinsy— The  Chest- 
Diseased  Valves  of  the  Heart — The  Bronchial  Tubes — Inflammation  of  the  Lungs,  or  Rising 
of  the  Lights — Pleuro-Pneumonia — Epidemics. 

A  VERY  slight  acquaintance  with  that  complicated  and  beautiful 
structure  which  we  term  the  animal  economy,  will  be  sufficient  to 
convince  us  that  any  rational  method  of  investigating  or  treating 
disease  must  be  founded  upon  an  acquaintance  with  the  general  con- 
struction of  the  frame,  the  derangements  and  alterations  to  which  it 
is  liable,  and  a  concise  notion  of  the  various  systems  or  sets  of  organs 
of  which  the  body  is  composed.  Without  this  amount  of  knowledge 
it  will  be  impossible  correctly  to  interpret  those  signs  of  alteration 
of  structure  or  function  which  constitute  the  symptoms  of  disease, 
and  indicate  its  nature  and  seat. 

If  we  would  understand  how  to  regulate  the  working  of  some 
complicated  machine,  ve  must  not  content  ourselves  with  a  mere 
cursory  glance  at  its  exterior,  but  closely  inspect  the  different  parts ; 
make  ourselves  acquainted  with  their  shape,  situation,  and  arrange- 
ment ;  inquire  into  the  principles  upon  which  the  whole  is  construct- 
ed, its  mode  of  action,  and  the  offices  which  each  part  was  destined 
to  perform.  Proceeding  thus,  we  shall  arrive  at  a  knowledge  of 
the  best  means  of  preserving  it  from  injury,  repairing  any  accident 
that  may  happen  to  it,  and  maintaining  it  in  a  fit  state  for  the  effi- 
cient discharge  of  the  duties  it  was  intended  to  perform. 

The  animal  economy  consist  of  parts  or  organs,  differing  from  each 
other  in  structure  and  function,  yet  all  so  intimately  connected 
together,  and  so  mutually  dependent  upon  each  other,  that  the 
cooperation  of  the  whole  is  necessary  to  a  state  of  perfect  health ; 
and  if  any  one  part  suffer  injury,  the  neighboring  organs  sympathize 
with  it  to  a  greater  or  less  extent,  and  the  working  of  the  whole 
system  is  impaired.  In  order  to  arrive  at  a  proper  understanding 
of  the  functions  of  any  one  part  of  the  body,  we  must  study  the 
whole ;  there  is  no  other  way  of  obtaining  that  insight  into  disease 
which  will  furnish  us  with  a  clear  idea  of  the  precise  nature  and  seat 
of  a  malady,  and  the  course  of  treatment  most  likely  to  be  attended 
with  success.  The  uninfc  rmed  empiric  wi/o  deals  about  his  noa 


102  THE  HOG. 

trums  at  random,  is  fur  more  liable  to  put  an  end  to  the  life  of  his 
patient  than  to  arrest  the  progress  of  the  disorder.  Such  men  should 
never  be  allowed  to  tamper  with  the  meanest  animal.  It  is  only  to 
those  who,  from  close  study  and  long  practice,  have  acquired  an 
accurate  knowledge  of  the  anatomy,  diseases,  habits,  and  general 
management  of  domesticated  animals,  that  their  medical  treatment 
can  with  safety  be  intrusted. 

It  is,  however,  by  no  means  our  intention  in  this  work  to  give  a 
formal  treatise  on  the  anatomy,  physiology,  and  diseases  of  the  pig, 
but  simply  to  lay  before  our  readers  a  tolerably  comprehensive 
sketch  of  the  general  structure  of  the  animal,  and  the  alterations 
and  evils  to  which  certain  parts  are  liable,  and  this  divested  as  much 
as  possible  of  all  the  technicalities  of  professional  language.  A  de- 
scription of  the  different  parts,  their  form,  situation,  action,  and  func- 
tions, as  well  as  their  admirable  adaptation  to  the  ends  for  which 
they  were  designed,  will  lead  us  to  a  consideration  of  the  diseases 
incidental  to  them — to  the  treatment  proper  to  be  adopted — and  to 
some  account  of  the  various  operations  which  it  may  occasionally 
be  requisite  to  perform.  In  short,  we  would  present  them  with 
a  practical  digest  of  all  that  is  yet  known  relative  to  this  too  much 
neglected  branch  of  veterinary  science ;  one  that  shall  serve  as  a 
book  of  reference  in  cases  of  doubt  or  emergency,  and  aid  in  intro- 
ducing those  great  truths  and  leading  doctrines,  which  form  the 
groundwork  upon  which  the  practice  of  every  branch  of  medical 
science  ought  to  be  based,  into  the  last  strongholds  of  ignorance  and 
empiricism. 

In  entering  upon  the  anatomy  and  diseases  of  swine,  we  may  be 
said  to  take  possession  of  a  new  and  almost  untrodden  field,  one  as 
yet  scarcely  recognized  as  belonging  to  any  earlier  occupants ;  and 
here,  in  the  onset,  it  will  be  as  well  to  observe  that,  careful  and 
lucid  as  we  shall  endeavor  to  make  our  descriptions,  we  should  only 
mislead  the  agriculturist  or  grazier  if  we  were  to  encourage  him  to 
believe  that  they  will  enable  him  wholly  to  dispense  with  a  veteri- 
nary surgeon.  Far  from  it ;  we  would  rather  persuade  him  to  seek 
at  once  the  assistance  of  the  well-educated  and  scientific  practi- 
tioner, who,  from  close  study,  practical  experience,  and  surgical 
skill,  is  qualified  sucessfully  to  grapple  with  the  most  obscure  and 
fatal  diseases.  We  would  enable  him  to  assist  the  veterinary  surgeon 
in  his  often  arduous  task,  by  giving  him  that  information  as  to  the 
previous  symptjoms,  habits,  &c.,  of  the  patient,  which  can  alone 
enable  him  to  proceed  with  certainty,  and  will  tend  to  save  the  life 
of  many  a  valuable  animal ;  and,  lastly,  we  would  warn  him  against 
empirics. 

Swine,  from  having  been,  until  very  lately,  considered  as  a  subor- 
dinate species  of  stock,  have  not  yet,  to  any  extent,  become  sharers 
m  the  benefits  which  an  improved  system  of  agriculture,  and  the 


ANATOMY  OF  THE  HOG.  105 

present  advancing  state  of  veterinary  science,  has  conferred  upon 
other  domesticated  animals.  When  any  thing  goes  wrong  in  the 
piggery,  the  farmer  too  often,  instead  of  exercising  that  shrewd  sense 
which  he  turns  to  so  good  an  account  in  almost  every  other  instance, 
either  sends  for  the  butcher,  or  consigns  the  sick  tenants  of  the  sty 
to  the  care  of  an  ignorant  "  pig-doctor,"  whose  whole  pretensions 
to  leech-craft  rest  on  the  possession  of  some  antiquated  recipe,  which 
he  uses  indiscriminately  as  a  grand  panacea  for  "  all  the  ills  swine's 
flesh  is  heir  to,"  or  on  the  traditionary  lore  he  inherits  from  some 
ancestor  famous  in  his  day  for  certain  real  or  supposed  wondrous 
cures.  The  treatment  adopted  in  such  a  case  is  usually  of  a  very 
summary  nature :  a  drench  is  administered,  the  principal  ingredi- 
ents of  which  consist  in  whatever  abominations  happen  to  come  to 
hand  first  when  this  learned  practitioner  is  summoned.  The  un- 
lucky patient's  tail  is  next  cut  off,  or  he  is  bled  "  between  the 
claws,"  and  the  "  doctor,"  after  some  learned  clinical  remarks  to  the 
bystanders,  swallows  the  customary  mug  of  beer,  and  leaves  his 
patient  to  contend  with  his  disease  and  the  remedy,  one  or  the  other 
of  which  in  most  cases  speedily  brings  the  matter  to  a  conclusion, 
unless,  with  all  the  obstinacy  inherent  in  a  pig's  nature,  he  lives  on 
in  spite  of  both. 


SKELETON    OP   THE   PIG. 


THE  HEAD. 

A   Maxilla  interior,    vel    posterior— lower  D.  Maxilla  superior,  -vcl  anterior— upper  jaw 

jaw.  E.  Os  frontis — the  frontal  bone. 

B.  D«nte»— the  teeth.  F.  Orbiculus— the  orbit  or  socket  of  the  eya. 

t.  0*ta  na«— the  nasal  bone*  6.  Oi  occipiti*— the  occipital  boc«         •          • 


104  THE    HOG. 

THE  TRUNK. 

H.  Atlas — the  first  vertel  *a  of  the  neck.  J.  Vertebrae  dorsi,  vel  dorsales«—the  vertebra 

of  the  back. 

I-  Vertebrae  colli,  vel  cervicales — the  verte-    K.  Vertebrae  lumborum,  vel  lumbales— 4he  ver 
brae  of  the  n«ck.  tebrsj  of  the  loins. 

L.  Ossa  coccygis— the  bones  of  the  tail. 

FORE    EXTREMITY. 

0.  Scapula — the  shoulder  blade.  /.  Os  naviculare — the  navicular  bone. 

b.  Humerus— the  round  shoulder-bone.  g.  g.  Phalanges,  vel  ossa  pedis— the  first  and 

c.  Sternum — the  breast  bone.  second  bones  of  the  foot. 

d.  Ulna— the  elbow.  ft.  Phalanges,  vel  ossa  pedis— the  bones  of  the 
«.  Radius  -the  bone  of  the  fore-arm.  hoof. 

HIND    EXTREMITY. 

»'.  i.  Pelvis  (ossa  innominata)  the  haunch  bones,  n.  n.  Os  naviculare — the  navicular  bone.  . .   .  . 
j.j.  Osfemoris— the  thigh-bone,  o.o.  Digiti,  vel  phalanges    (ossa  pedis)— the 

k.  k.  Patella — the  stifle  bone.  first  digits  of  the  foot. 

1.  I.  Tibia— the  upper  bone  of  the  leg.  p.  p.  Digiti,  vel  phalanges  (ossa  pedis)  the  se- 
m.  m.  Tarsus,  (one   of  which  is  the  (N)  os  cond  digits  of  the  foot. 

calcis) — the  hock  bones. 

THE   SKULL    AND    SNOUT. 

As  the  skull  of  the  hog  diners  in  many  respects  from  that  of  the 
horse,  ox,  sheep,  or  dog,  we  shall  now  proceed  to  notice  those  points 
of  difference. 

From  the  point  of  the  occiput  to  the  tip  of  the  nasal  bone  the 
profile  presents  an  almost  unbroken  sloping  line.  The  position  of 
the  orbit  of  the  eye  is  lateral,  giving  to  the  animal  a  side,  rather 
than  a  forward  range  of  vision.  The  space  occupied  by  the  orbital 
processes  of  the  frontal  bone  in  the  ox  and  horse,  is  in  the  hog  sup- 
plied by  a  cartilage.  The  frontal  bones  unite  together  early,  and 
the  parietals  appear  to  form  but  one  piece.  The  frontal  sinuses 
proceed  to  -the  occiput,  and  are  only  separated  from  each  other  by 
some  longitudinal  or  somewhat  oblique  bony  layers  which  do  not 
entirely  intercept  communication :  these  and  the  sphenoidal  sinuses 
render  the  cerebral  cavity  narrow,  in  fact  the  size  of  it  is  only  half 
that  of  the  cranium  viewed  from  the  exterior.  The  ethmoid  and 
turbinated  bones  are  larger  and  more  fully  developed  in  the  hog 
than  in  the  ox  or  sheep,  in  fact  they  occupy  an  intermediate  grade 
between  those  of  the  horse  and  dog,  being  larger  than  those  of  the 
former,  and  smaller  than  those  of  the  latter ;  they  are  spiral,  com- 
plicated, cellular,  and  offer  an  extensive  surface  for  the  expansion  of 
the  olfactory  nerve ;  the  ethmoidal  fosset  is  very  much  sunk,  of 
moderate  size,  divided  by  a  very  salient  crest,  and  riddled  with  nu- 
merous holes. 

The  nasal  bones  of  the  hog  are  situated  low  down  in  the  face, 
flattened,  and  well  adapted  to  the  situation  and  wants  of  the  animal. 
They  are  attached , to  the  frontal s  in  a  slightly  curved  direction  across 
the  face,  by  a  strong  denticulated  suture.  All  communication  be 
Iwecu  them  aud  the  lachrymal  bones  is  cut  off  by  the  interpositiou 


SKULL  AND  SNOUT.  105 

of  a  projection  of  the  frontals  on  either  side ;  the  suture  between 
them  and  the  superior  maxillary  is  mortised  ;  the  anterior  maxillary 
sends  up  a  broad  deep  process  more  than  half  the  length  of  tne 
nasal  bones,  and  the  suture  here  is  exceedingly  strong.  The  bony 
nasal  opening  is  but  small,  not  one-sixth  of  the  size  of  that  of  the 
sheep,  and  the  apices  of  the  bone  form  one  sharp  but  rapidly  widen- 
ing point,  which  is  carried  forward  to  the  anterior  extremity  of  the 
maxillary.  The  suture  between  the  nasals  themselves  is  often  so 
intricate,  that  before  the  animal  is  two  years  old,  the  upper  part  of 
it  is  perfectly  obliterated,  and  the  nasal  cavity  appears  as  if  only 
covered  by  one  bone.  A  very  slight  comparison  of  the  face  of  this 
animal  with  that  of  any  other  will  prove  that  strength  is  the  object 
here  in  view;  strength  towards  the  inferior  part  of  the  bone.  In. 
point  of  fact  the  snout  of  the  hog  is  his  spade,  with  which,  in  his 
natural  state,  he  digs  and  grubs  in  the  ground  for  roots,  earth-nuts, 
worms,  &c.  And  to  render  his  implement  more  perfect,  an  extra 
bone  is  added  to  the  nasal  bone.  This  one  is  short  and  trificial 
and  placed  directly  before  the  nasal  bones,  with  which,  and  with 
the  edges  of  the  anterior  maxillary,  it  is  connected  by  strong 
ligaments,  cartilages,  and  muscles.  This  bone  has  been  termed  the 
spade-bone,  snout-bone,  and  by  some  writers,  the  vomer,  from  Its 
supposed  resemblance  to  a  ploughshare.  By  it  and  its  cartilagi- 
nous attachment  is  the  snout  rendered  strong  as  well  as  flexible, 
and  far  more  efficient  than  it  could  otherwise  be;  and  the  hog 
often  contrives  to  give  both  farmers  and  gardeners  very  unplea- 
sant proofs  of  its  efficiency,  by  ploughing  up  deep  furrows  in  newly- 
sown  fields,  and  grubbing  up  the  soil  in  all  directions  in  search 
of  his  living  and  dead  food. 

The  palatine  bones  constitute  the  crescentic  and  posterior  border 
of  the  palate  and  nasal  cavity ;  they  do  not  advance  further  than 
just  before  the  last  molar  tooth,  instead  of  occupying  a  considerable 
portion  of  the  palate.  The  palatine  processes  consist  merely  of 
bony  laminae. 

As  roots  and  fruits  buried  in  the  earth  form  the  natural  food  of 
the  hog,  his  face  terminates  in  a  strong  muscular  snout,  insensible 
at  the  extremity,  and  perfectly  adapted  for  turning  up  the  soil. 
There  is  a  large  plexus  of  nerves  proceeding  down  each  side  of  the 
nose,  and  ramifying  over  the  nostril,  and  in  these  doubtless  reside 
that  peculiar  power  which  enables  the  hog  to  detect  his  food  though 
buried  some  inches  below  the  surface  of  the  ground.  The  olfactory 
nerve,  too,  is  large,  and  occupies  a  middle  rank  between  that  of  the 
herbivorous  and  carnivorous  animals ;  it  is  comparatively  larger 
than  that  of  the  ox :  indeed  few  animals,  with  the  exception  of  the 
dog,  are  gifted  with  a  more  acute  sense  of  smell  than  the  hog.  We 
have  already  spoken  of  the  sow  which  was  taught  to  hunt  partridges, 
and  proved  as  sure  a  finder  and  as  stanch  a  backer  as  any  pointer 
6* 


106  THE  HOG. 

ever  bred.  To  the  acute  sense  of  the  hog  are  epicures  indebted  for 
the  truffles  which  form  such  a  delicious  sauce,  for  they  are  the  actual 
finders.  A  pig  is  turned  into  a  field  and  suffered  to  pursue  his  own 
course  and  watched.  He  stops  and  begins  to  grub  up  the  earth,  the 
man  hurries  up,  drives  him  away,  and  secures  the  truffle,  wliich  is 
invariably  growing  under  that  spot,  and  the  poor  pig  goes  off  to 
sniff  out  another,  and  another,  only  now  and  then  being  allowed  by 
way  of  encouragement  to  reap  the  fruits  of  his  research.  And  how 
many  a  school-boy  has  by  watching  a  hog  along  the  hedge  sides,  and 
driven  him  away  just  as  he  began  to  dig,  secured  a  fine  juicy  earth- 
nut! 

The  muscles,  too,  of  the  snout  of  the  hog  require  some  notice. 
According  to  Cuvier,  there  are  four  principal  muscles  proceeding  to 
it ;  the  superior  of  these  proceeds  from  the  lachrymal  bone,  which 
occupies  a  rather  large  rhomboidal  space  upon  the  cheek,  and  its 
tendon  bears  upon  the  snout,  but  does  not  approach  sufficiently 
near  it  to  unite  with  it.  The  next  two  are  situated  immediately 
beneath,  and  proceed  from  the  maxillary  bone  ;  these  are  partially 
united,  but  their  tendons  pass  on  separately,  one  on  the  one  side,  and 
one  on  the  other  of  the  extremity  of  the  snout ;  and  the  fourth  and 
smallest  passes  obliquely  beneath  the  tendons  of  the  others,  from 
the  nasal  bone  towards  the  insertion  of  the  second  and  third  muscles. 
These  longitudinal  muscles  are  enveloped  in  annular  fibres,  which 
appear  to  be  a  continuation  of  the  orbicularis  of  the  lips,  and  give 
to  the  snout  its  extreme  flexibility. 

THE JEETH. 

The  hog  has  fourteen  molar  teeth  in  each  jaw ;  six  incisors  and 
two  canines ;  these  latter  are  curved  upwards,  and  commonly  denomi- 
nated  tushes.  The  molar  teeth  are  all  slightly  different  in  structure, 
and  increase  in  size  from  first  to  last ;  they  bear  no  slight  resem- 
blance to  those  of  the  human  being.  The  incisors  are  so  fantastic  in 
form  as  to  baffle  description,  and  their  destined  functions  are  by  no 
means  clear.  Those  in  the  lower  jaw  are  long,  round,  and  nearly 
straight ;  of  those  in  the  upper  jaw  four  closely  resemble  the  corre- 
sponding teeth  in  the  horse,  while  the  two  corner  incisors  bear  some- 
thing of  the  fleur  de  Us  shape  of  those  of  the  dog.  These  latter  are 
placed  so  near  to  the  tushes  as  often  to  obstruct  their  growth,  and 
it  is  sometimes  necessary  to  draw  them,  in  order  to  relieve  the  ani- 
mal and  enable  him  to  feed. 

It  is  seldom  that  it  becomes  necessary  to  ascertain  the  age  of  the 
hog  by  inspecting  his  teeth,  nor  is  it  by  any  means  an  easy  task  to 
do  so,  but  still  it  may  occasionally  be  interesting,  and,  with  refer- 
ence to  those  intended  for  breeding,  important  to  be  able  to  do  so 
when  necessary. 


THE  BRAIN.  107 

The  calculation  of  the  age  of  the  hog  by  means  of  reference  to 
the  mouth,  has  not  yet  been  carried  beyond  three  years ;  no  writer 
seems  to  have  gone  much  beyond  the  protrusion  of  the  adult  middle 
teeth  of  the  lower  jaw. 

The  hog  is  born  with  two  molars  on  each  side  of  the  jaw ;  by  the 
time  he  is  three  or  four  months  old,  he  is  provided  with  his  incisive 
milk  teeth  and  the  tushes  ;  the  supernumerary  molars  protrude  be- 
tween the  fifth  and  seventh  month,  as  does  the  first  back  molar  ;  the 
second  back  molar  is  cut  at  the  age  of  about  ten  months,  and  the 
third  generally  not  until  the  animal  is  three  years  old.  The  upper 
corner  teeth  are  shed  at  about  six  or  eight  months,  and  the  lower 
ones  at  about  seven,  nine,  or  ten  months  old,  and  replaced  by  the 
permanent  ones.  The  milk  tushes  are  also  shed  and  replaced  be- 
tween six  and  ten  months  old.  The  age  of  twenty  months,  and  from 
that  to  two  years,  is  denoted  by  the  shedding  and  replacement  of 
the  middle  incisors,  or  pincers,  in  both  jaws,  and  the  formation  of  a 
black  circle  at  the  base  of  each  of  the  tushes.  At  about  two  years 
and  a  half  or  three  years  of  age,  the  adult  middle  teeth  in  both 
jaws  protrude,  and  the  pincers  are  becoming  black  and  rounded  at 
the  ends. 

After  three  years,  the  age  may  be  computed  by  the  growth  of  the 
tushes ;  at  about  four  years,  or  rather  before,  the  upper  tushes  begin 
to  raise  the  lip  ;  at  five  they  protrude  through  the  lips ;  at  six  years 
of  age,  the  tushes  of  the  lower  jaw  begin  to  show  themselves  out 
of  the  mouthTahd  assume  a  spiral  form.  These  acquire  a  prodigi- 
ous length  in  old  animals,  and  particularly  in  uncastrated  boars ; 
and  as  they  increase  in  size  they  become  curved  backwards  and  out- 
wards, and  at  length  are  so  crooked  as  to  interfere  with  the  motion 
of  the  jaws  to  such  a  degree  that  it  is  necessary  to  cut  off  these 
projecting  teeth,  which  is  done  with  the  file  or  with  nippers.  ( Traite 
de  VAge  du  Ckeval,  du  B&vf,  du  Mouton,  du  Chien,  et  du  Uochnnt 
par  N.  F.  et  J.  Girard.) 

THE    BRAIN. 

This  important  organ  is  not  SQ  large  as  from  an  external  view  of 
the  cranium  we  should  be  led  to  suppose,  the  frontal  and  sphenoidal 
sinuses  contracting  the  limits  of  the  cranial  cavity  and  rendering  it 
narrow ;  it  is,  however,  considerably  larger  in  proportion  to  the  size 
of  the  animal  than  that  of  the  ox  or  sheep,  being  about  l-500th  part 
of  the  weight  of  the  animal,  while  that  of  the  ox  is  only  l-800th  part, 
and  that  of  the  sheep  only  l-750th  part.  The  irregularities  of  the 
surface,  or  those  prominences  and  depressions  which  define  the  organs 
in  phrenology,  are  more  marked  in  the  pig  than  in  the  horse,  taking 
the  size  of  the  animal  into  consideration,  but  not  so  much  marked 
AS  in  the  dog. 


108  THE  HOG. 

The  brain  of  the  hog,  like  that  of  our  other  domesticated  animals, 
is  composed  of  two  substances  differing  materially  in  appearance 
and  structure ;  the  one  is  of  a  pale  gray  or  ashy  hue,  and  termed 
the  cortical  or  cineritious  substance,  and  the  other,  from  its  pulpy 
nature  and  from  being  found  deeper  in  the  brain,  the  medullary 
substance. 

These  two  distinct  component  parts  of  the  brain  are  allowed  by 
all  scientific  men  to  be  intended  for  the  discharge  of  two  distinct 
functions.  The  mind  or  reasoning  power  is  supposed  to  reside  in 
the  cineritious.  portion;  and  hence  the  preponderance  of  that  substance 
in  the  human  brain ;  while  the  *riedullary  portion  is  merely  the  re- 
cipient of  outward  impressions  upon  the  senses.  There  is  very  little 
difference  between  the  proportions  of  these  two  substances  in  the 
brain  of  the  hog  and  that  of  the  sheep ;  if  any  thing,  the  hog  has 
more  of  the  cineritious  portion  than  the  ox;  a  proof,  physiologists 
would  say,  that  his  reasoning  powers  or  moral  faculties  are  greater. 
We  have  already  endeavored,  we  know  not  how  successfully,  to  vindi- 
cate him  from  the  charge  of  utter  stupidity  and  unteachableness  so 
generally  brought  against  him,  and  pleaded  the  slight  intercourse,  com- 
pared with  that  enjoyed  by  other  animals,  which  he  has  with  man  as 
the  cause  of  it.  There  are  anecdotes  enough  to  prove  them  possessed 
of  memory,  attachment,  and  social  qualities  ;  but  at  present  the  sys- 
tem of  treatment  affords  no  scope  for  the  development  of  any  but 
mere  brute  and  gluttonous  instincts. 

APOPLEXY. 

As  this  is  a  disease  which  is  chiefly  induced  by  plethora,  laziness, 
want  of  exercise,  high  feeding,  and  such  like  causes,  it  is  not  to  be 
wondered  at  that  it  is  frequent  arnong  swine ;  and  in  by  far  the 
majority  of  cases  it  is  fatal ;  for  either  the  animal  dies  suddenly 
without  any  precursory  symptoms,  or  the  progress  of  the  attack  is 
so  rapid  that  before  help  can  be  obtained  or  remedies  administered 
all  is  over.  Where,  however,  the  apoplexy  does  not  destroy  its 
victim  in  a  short  space  of  time,  it  may  be  subdued  and  the  animal 
temporarily  cured  ;  but  only  for  awhile ;  it  invariably  dies  soon 
afterwards  of  inflammation  of  the  brain.  Sometimes  apoplexy  will 
run,  like  an  epidemic,  through  a  whole  piggery,  and  where  this  is 
the  case  the  causes  of  it  must  be  diligently  sought  out  and  care- 
fully removed. 

The  precursory  symptoms  which  prognosticate  apoplexy  are  dull- 
ness, disinclination  to  move,  heaviness  of  the  head,  an  uncertain  and 
staggering  gait,  wildness  and  inflammation  of  the  eyes,  with  apparent 
loss  of  sight,  no  appetite,  and  general  numbness.  The  treatment 
must  be  prompt  and  energetic :  bleeding  from  the  palate  ;  Epsom 
salts  and  sulphur  as  purgatives  ;  or  emetic  tartar  dissolved  in  water 


DISEASES.  109 

to  induce  vomiting.  Strict  attention  to  diet  will  be  requisite  for 
some  time  afterwards.  No  stimulating  food  should  be  given ;  the 
water  should  be  slightly  nitrated,  and  the  animal  bled  at  least  every 
three  months. 

INFLAMMATION    OF    THE    BRAIN. 

Inflammation  both  of  the  substance  and  of  the  membranes  of  the 
brain  is  by  no  means  of  unfrequent  occurrence,  and  almost  invariably 
follows  an  attack  of  apoplexy.  It  is  also  induced  by  heating  or  ex 
citing  or  indigestible  food,  as  an  over-feed  of  grains,  or  new  corn, 
&c.  The  precursory  symptoms  are  dullness,  redness  of  the  eyes, 
and  disinclination  to  move;  but  as  the  inflammation  becomes  more 
intense  the  animal  runs  wildly  to  and  fro,  seems  blind  and  uncon- 
scious where  he  is  going,  runs  against  every  thing ;  the  pulse  is  small 
and  rapid ;  and  the  breathing  slightly  accelerated.  The  first  thing 
to  be  done  is  to  bleed,  from  the  palate  if  possible;  if  not,  or  if  suf- 
ficient blood  cannot  be  obtained  from  there,  let  incisions  be  made  in 
the  ears,  and  these  repeatedly  washed  with  warm  water,  which  ma- 
terially increases  the  bleeding.  Magn.  sulph.  with  ginger  should  be 
given  internally  as  a  purgative.  Enemas  (clysters)  have  also  a 
beneficial  effect,  and  then  the  animal  should  have  repeated  cooling 
doses  of  sulphur.  Castor  oil  and  jalap  have  been  given  as  purga- 
tives ;  and  the  system  stimulated  by  the  application  of  a  blister  to 
the  throat. 

PHRENITIS. 

This  is  a  disease  very  much  resembling  the  last  mentioned,  and  is 
often  called  brain-fever  or  frenzy ;  it  arises  pretty  much  from  the 
same  cause ;  all  excitants  of  the  system,  all  things  which  tend  to  drive 
the  blood  to  the  head,  will  induce  it.  The  symptoms  are  prostration 
of  strength,  blindness,  frenzy,  and  often  convulsions.  The  treatment 
must  consist  in  copious  bleedings  and  strong  purgatives,  which  should 
be  followed  up  by  doses  of  sulphur  to  keep  the  bowels  open.  Croton 
oil  with  tincture  of  ginger  has  been  given  in  extreme  cases,  and 
with  beneficial  effects.  The  dose  for  a  moderate-sized  animal  is 
about  two  minims  of  croton  oil  and  one  dram  of  tincture  of  ginger. 

SPINAL    CORD. 

Next  to  the  diseases  of  the  brain  follows  a  consideration  of  those 
arising  from  the  spinal  cord.  This  proceeds  from  the  brain  to  the 
tail,  and  is  divided  by  a  central  line  on  the  upper  and  under  surface 
throughout  its  whole  extent,  forming  it  into  two  separate  columns, 
each  of  which  has  been  proved  to  possess  a  distinct  and  separate 
function,  the  inferior  surfaces  being  connected  with  voluntary  motion, 
and  the  central  ones  on  the  upper  surface  with  sensation. 


110  THE  HOG. 

EPILEPSY. 

The  pig  occasionally  exhibits  all  the  symptoms  of  epilepsy  in 
their  most  frightful  intensity,  and  whoever  has  carefully  marked  the 
habits  of  swine  when  not  confined  to  the  sty  will  easily  be  able  to 
account  for  this ;  for,  obtuse  and  stupid  as  it  is  the  custom  to  deno- 
minate them,  there  is  more  excitability  and  nervousness  in  these 
animals  than  in  many  that  have  the  credit  of  being  more  delicately 
organized.  Note  the  manner  in  which  they  are  affected  by  the  ap- 
proach of  wind  or  storms — how  they  run  about  in  a  state  of  highly 
nervous  excitement  with  straw  in  their  mouths ;  note  the  sympathy 
and  terror  a  whole  herd  will  exhibit  while  one  of  them  is  undergo- 
ing the  operation  of  spaying  or  ringing,  how  they  squeak  in  concert 
with  his  cries ;  see  them  at  a  fair  under  the  irritation  of  strange 
scenes  and  noises,  and  we  shall  find  sufficient  indications  of  a  sus- 
ceptibility of  impression  to  account  for  swine  being  peculiarly 
subject  to  epilepsy. 

The  prognostics  are  constant  grunting,  restlessness,  acceleration  of 
breathing,  pallor  of  the  skin,  and  a  staggering  gait.  Then  the  ani- 
rnal  suddenly  falls  as  if  struck  by  lightning,  and  for  a  few  moments 
lies  perfectly  motionless  ;  after  which  convulsions  come  on  gradually, 
increasing  in  intensity  until  they  are  fearful  to  behold ;  the  counte- 
nance is  distorted,  the  neck  curved  in  every  direction,  and  the  legs 
alternately  drawn  up  to  the  body,  and  extended  with  momentarily 
increasing  rapidity.  The  eyes  protrude,  the  pupils  are  distended, 
and  the  balls  roll  about.  The  tongue  is  protruded  and  fixed  between 
the  clenched  jaws ;  the  teeth  grind  together,  foam  and  saliva  flow 
from  the  mouth.  The  pulse  is  wiry  and  small  at  first,  then  hard  and 
bounding,  and,  as  the  intensity  of  the  fit  decreases,  irregular  and 
intermittent.  Throughout  the  whole  of  the  fit  the  animal  remains 
perfectly  unconscious,  and  as  he  recovers  gets  up,  tries  to  hide  him- 
self in  the  litter  or  in  a  corner  of  the  sty,  and  looks  terrified  and 
wild  ;  then  gradually  the  impression  passes  away,  and  he  creeps  out 
and  begins  to  eat  again.  The  seizure  of  one  pig  is  often  but  a  pre- 
lude to  that  of  the  greater  number  of  those  contained  in  the  sty. 
The  fits  often  succeed  each  other  rapidly,  two  or  three  occurring  in 
one  day ;  and  the  cries  uttered  by  the  animals  while  in  them  are 
distressing  in  the  extreme.  • 

Medical  treatment  can  only  be  resorted  to  in  the  intervals  between 
the  fits,  and  is  seldom  successful.  It  consists  of  cold  affusions  applied 
to  the  head,  bleeding,  and  energetic  purgatives,  followed  up  by  low 
diet,  perfect  quiet,  mid  cooling  medicines.  The  best  way  of  keeping 
the  head  cool  is  to  tie  a  piece  of  cloth  about  it,  and  then  keep  this  con- 
stantly wet.  A  very  efficient  cold  lotion  for  this  purpose  may  bo 
composed  of  a  pint  of  vinegar  to  two  quarts  of  water,  and  one  ounce 
of  sal  arwjoniac.  Salts  and  calomel  may  be  given  as  purgatives. 


PALSY.  Hi 

It  is  often  difficult  to  determine  what  are  the  precise  causes  of 
epilepsy ;  the  immediate  one  is  generally  some  excitant  or  stimu« 
lant  acting  on  a  system  predisposed  by  cerebral  inflammation,  or  by 
intestinal  irritation  arising  from  worms,  or  other  sources,  to  take  on 
disease. 

We  quote  a  case  communicated  by  Mr.  Cartwright,  of  Whitchurch, 
to  whom  we  are  indebted  for  much  useful  information  relative  to  the 
diseases  of  swine : — 

"  In  1825,  I  saw  a  pig  that  was  taken  ill  in  the  following  manner : 
He  was  a  little  stupid  and  dull,  and  now  wandered  about  the  «ty 
unconsciously  for  a  few  minutes,  and  then  appeared  to  be  quite  well; 
but  in  a  few  days  after  he  became  worse :  he  would  r.ove  forwards 
until  he  came  to  one  wall,  and  then  retreat  backwards  until  he  came 
to  the  other  wall ;  and  made  a  grunting  and  squealing  noise  all  the 
time  the  fit  was  on  him,  which  was  usually  a  few  minutes,  and  some- 
times longer ;  and  he  had  them  every  quarter  of  an  hour,  and  even 
oftener.  His  fits  continued  to  increase ;  when  he  had  been  thus  for 
about  five  days  he  began,  after  so  backing  himself,  to  fall  down  at 
full  length,  stretch  out  his  legs  and  tumble  about,  and  appear  as  if 
dying,  and  make  a  shrieking  noise  as  if  in  great  pain,  and  seem  to 
be  blind.  His  pulse  was  very  quick  and  full  during  the  fits,  but 
subsided  a  great  deal  when  they  were  over.  He  ate  at  intervals 
between  the  fits  when  food  was  put  to  him.  He  continued  in  this 
latter  bad  state  for  three  or  four  days,  and  got  well  in  a  few  days 
after.  I  gave  him  salts  and  calomel  during  his  illness,  bled  him  in 
the  tail  and  ears,  and  between  his  claws ;  but  little  blood,  I  fancy, 
was  obtained  from  all  the  places ;  and  I  kept  his  head  wet  with  cold 
water. 

"About  the  same  time  a  miller  in  this  neighborhood  lost  five  or 
six  in  a  similar  way,  but  I  had  not  an  opportunity  of  opening  any 
of  them." 

PALSY  OR  PARALYSIS. 

This  is  by  no  means  a  disease  of  frequent  occurrence  in  our  own 
country.  It  is  treated  of  by  French  writers,  who  attribute  it  to  low, 
marshy  situations,  bad  or  damaged  food,  or  the  avarice  of  the  pig- 
owner,  who,  in  order  to  fatten  the  animals  more  rapidly,  gives  them 
highly  stimulating  food,  which  irritates  the  intestinal  canal,  and 
through  it  the  spinal  cord.  Eric  Viborg,  an  authority  quoted  by 
Hurtrel  D'Arboval,  recommends  wholesome  food,  clean  straw,  a  dose 
of  common  salt  as  a  purgative,  and  drenches  of  common  salt  and 
gentian. 

But  there  is  a  kind  of  partial  palsy  which  is  caused  by  the  pre- 
sence of  cysticercus  cellulosa,  a  hydatid  peculiar  to  the  pig.  M.  Dupuy 
gives  the  following  case  which  came  under  his  observation : — 

"  Palsy  of  the  hind  limbs,  with  loss  both  of  motion  and  feeling 


112  THE  HOG. 

was  observed  in  a  pig  eighteen  months  old.  On  carefully  exarain 
ing  him  after  death,  the  muscles  were  discolored  and  softened. 
There  were  in  the  psoas  muscles  numerous  cysts  inclosing  hydatids. 
Other  cysts  with  their  parietes,  more  thickened  and  fibrous,  inhabited 
the  muscles  surrounding  the  trochanter,  containing  likewise  hydatids. 
These  parasites  are  also  found  in  the  lungs,  the  liver,  and  the  corti- 
cal substance  of  the  kidneys. 

"  Between  the  internal  surface  of  the  cyst  and  the  hydatid  was  a 
fine  white  powder,  resembling  pulverized  bones.  The  spinal  marrow 
was  softened  about  the  lumbar  and  sacral  regions,  and  the  mem- 
branes were  slightly  reddened,  particularly  about  the  roots  of  the 
lumbar  nerves." 

It  is  generally  the  hinder  parts  of  the  pig  which  are  paralyzed, 
either  wholly  or  partially  ;  in  the  former  case  the  animal  is  totally 
unable  to  rise,  in  the  latter  he  totters  in  his  gait  and  falls  wher 
attempting  to  walk.  Paralysis  frequently  accompanies  chronic  dis- 
ease of  the  digestive  organs,  and  is  attended  with  loss  of  appetite, 
acceleration  of  the  pulse,  and  swelling  of  the  tongue.  This  disease 
is  seldom  obstinate ;  a  removal  of  the  predisposing  cause,  good 
nourishing  food,  a  clean  and  well-ventilated  sty,  moderate  exercise, 
and  gentle  purgative  or  cooling  medicine,  will  generally  restore  the 
animal  to  perfect  health  in  a  short  space  of  time. 

TETANUS,  OR  LOCK-JAW. 

This  disease,  which  is  commonly  denominated  Locked-jaw,  is  by  no 
means  an  unfrequent  malady  among  pigs.  The  symptoms  are  at 
first  spasmodic  motion  of  the  head  and  of  one  or  more  of  the  extremi- 
ties, grinding  the  teeth  and  rigidity  of  the  jaws.  This  is  soon  fol- 
lowed by  stiffness  of  the  neck  and  greater  part  of  the  frame,  and  an 
unnatural  upraised  position  of  the  head.  The  castration  of  young 
pigs  will  frequently  produce  this  disease,  especially  if  the  animal  is 
too  w.ell  fed  for  a  few  days  after  the  operation.  It  also  often  appears 
among  pigs  that  are  driven  far  to  market,  especially  if  when  heated 
by  travelling  or  exposure  to  the  sun,  they  are  suffered  to  roll  them- 
selves in  ditches  or  streams,  as  they  will  endeavor  to  do.  Bleeding, 
warm  baths,  lotions,  &c.,  friction  with  stimulating  oils,  purgatives  if 
they  can  be  got  into  the  mouth,  if  not,  enemas  and  anodynes  are  the 
most  efficient  remedies.  But  the  disease  is  too  often  fatal,  and  runs 
its  course  very  speedily  ;  if  the  animal  survives  the  first  twelve  or 
eighteen  hours,  some  hopes  of  his  eventual  recovery  may  be  enter- 
tained. 

RABIES. 

Swine  are  by  no  means  exempt  from  this  frightful  disea«e ;  ther* 
are  numerous  cases  on  record  in  which  they  have  been  inoculated  by 


BABIES.  113 

the  bite  of  rabid  dogs,  and  Hiibner  relates  a  case  of  inoculation  from 
the  bite  of  a  rabid  fox.  The  symptoms  of  rabies  in  the  hog  are 
peculiarly  interesting  at  times  from  the  resemblance  many  of  them 
bear  to  those  of  the  human  being.  At  first  there  is  dullness  and 
indisposition,  and  the  pig  is  continually  licking  the  bitten  part.  Sub- 
sequently some  are  exceedingly  ferocious,  snapping  at  every  body, 
gnawing  every  thing  which  comes  in  their  way,  dashing  themselves 
against  walls,  or  leaping  over  all  obstacles.  Others,  again,  are  dull, 
stupid,  refuse  their  food,  stagger  when  they  attempt  to  rise,  and  are 
paralyzed  in  the  hinder  parts.  There  is  no  absolute  dread  of  water, 
but  evident  inability  to  drink.  An  animal  that  we  saw  went  to  the 
trough,  smelt  at  the  food,  and  brought  his  nose  nearly  in  contact 
with  it,  then  started  back,  trembled  violently,  and  elevated  his  snout 
high  in  the  air.  Once  or  twice  he  attempted  to  take  portions  of 
meat  or  vegetable  from  the  wash,  but  the  attempt  was  always 
accompanied  or  followed  by  universal  rigor  and  shuddering,  during 
which  the  food  was  dropped  from  the  mouth,  evidently  proving  that 
the  organs  of  deglutition  were  powerfully  affected. 

The  animal  is  in  a  highly  nervous  state,  and  the  sensibility  of  the 
skin  is  so  excessive,  that  even  if  his  mother  licks  him  he  screams 
with  agony,  and  buries  himself  in  the  litter,  uttering  shrill  squeaks 
on  the  approach  of  any  one,  or  springs  up  into  the  air  if  he  hears  a 
loud  noise,  and  falls  down  again  in  convulsions.  There  is  in  general 
no  great  secretion  of  saliva  in  these  animals,  and  the  delirium  which 
characterizes  rabies  in  the  dog  is  rarely  seen,  or  when  met  with  is 
less  evident  and  distinctive. 

And  yet  this  disease  has  been  but  little  studied  in  pigs.  Mr.  Prit- 
chard,  V.  S.,  of  Wolverhampton,  gives  the  following  interesting 
account  of  some  cases  he  met  with  : — 

"A  rabid  dog  entered  the  farm-yard  of  Mr.  George  Strongitharm 
of  Calderfield,  near  Walsall,  on  the  27th  of  December,  1835,  and 
attacked  some  pigs,  which  making  a  considerable  noise,  aroused  Mr. 
S.  and  his  servants  from  their  beds,  and  they  proceeded  with  their 
guns  already  loaded,  discovered  him,  and  succeeded  in  destroying 
him.  Two  of  the  pigs  had  evidently  received  wounds  in  their  noses 
from  the  dog,  which  soon  got  well,  no  curative  or  preventive  measures 
being  had  recourse  to,  and  without  much  irritation  or  swelling  taking 
place.  After  a  fortnight  had  elapsed,  nothing  outward  being  observ- 
able in  them,  they  were  again  turned  into  the  yard  to  their  old  com- 
panions. 

"A  day  or  two  after,  on  the  entrails  of  a  sheep  being  thrown  to 
the  pigs,  all  came  and  partook  of  it  except  the  two  that  had  been 
bitten.  One  of  these  was  found  dead  in  the  litter,  with  a  quantity 
of  froth  and  slaver  about  his  mouth  ;  the  other,  in  coining  out  of 
his  bed  into  the  air,  immediately  jumped  up  on  all  four  legs  like  the 
bound  of  a  deer,  a  yard  at  least  from  the  ground,  and  threw  from 


.  THE  HOG. 

bis  mouth  a  portion  of  thick  slaver  and  froth.  Upon  being  again 
placed  in  the  sty  he  was  much  convulsed,  and  made  a  shrill  squeak- 
ing  noise ;  his  mouth  was  filled  with  saliva,  and  held  continually  open, 
nearly  half  an  inch,  except  when  champing  his  under  jaw,  which  he 
frequently  did  with  considerable  twitching  of  the  superficial  muscles. 
He  refused  to  eat  or  drink,  gradually  got  worse,  and  died  on  the 
third  day. 

"  Three  weeks  after,  another  of  the  pigs  was  taken  ill.  The  symp- 
toms were  much  the  same.  The  effect  of  water  was  tried,  and  upon 
being  thrown  upon  him  caused  him  considerable  distress,  so  that  he 
leaped  into  the  air  and  dashed  his  head  against  the  wall,  appearing 
quite  delirious.  He  died  on  the  second  day.  Not  long  afterwards 
another  pig  was  attacked,  the  symptoms  being  similar  to  those  in 
the "  former  cases,  only  more  violent ;  he  died  twenty-four  hours 
afterwards,  nothing  having  been  done  to  disturb  him.  None  of  the 
pigs  ate  or  drank  any  thing  after  they  were  first  taken  ill." 

And  the  case  we  are  now  about  to  quote  was  communicated  by 
Mr.  Heaton,  a  human  surgeon  : 

"About  May,  1829,  while  visiting  a  patient,  I  was  told  that  in  a 
sty  at  the  bottom  of  the  yard  there  was  a  mad  pig.  Thither  I 
repaired,  when  I  was  informed  by  its  owner  that  the  animal  had 
been  bitten  about  three  weeks  before  by  a  strange  dog,  which  had 
passed  through  the  yard,  and  who  was  at  the  time,  by  those  who 
saw  it,  declared  to  be  mad  ;  the  dog  appeared  to  be  greatly  alarmed 
and  proceeded  with  swiftness ;  it  was  afterwards  seen  for  the  last 
time  in  some  fields  at  the  outskirts  of  the  town.  From  the  state- 
ment of  the  man  it  would  appear  that,  on  the  morning  of  the  day 
previous  to  that  on  which  I  saw  the  pig,  the  animal  began  to  exhibit 
symptoms  of  great  oppression  at  the  prsecordia ;  to  this  succeeded 
gradual  inability  to  stand,  fearful  cries,  and  general  uneasiness 
when  disturbed,  foaming  at  the  mouth,  and  a  disposition  to  eat  what- 
ever came  in  the  way,  &c.  At  six  o'clock  in  the  afternoon  of  the 
second  day  I  first  saw  it,  covered  with  straw  and  apparently  quiet, 
until  the  rattling  of  the  sneck  of  its  door  seemed  to  awaken  the 
most  painful  apprehension,  and  its  mental  agony  seemed  almost 
insufferable.  The  sense  of  sight  seemed  no  less  acute  than  that  of 
hearing,  which  was  manifested  by  the  animal's  convulsive  efforts  to 
hide  even  its  head  beneath  the  straw  ;  this  accomplished,  it  became 
somewhat  tranquil,  and  was  constantly  devouring  its  own  litter,  ex- 
crement, &c.,  &c.  Its  eyes  had  the  suspicious  glance  of  those  of  a 
phrenetic  patient,  its  breathing  was  preternatural ly  quick,  and  its 
efforts  to  stand  wholly  abortive.  In  this  state  it  continued  two 
hours,  whnn  half  a  pint  of  train  oil  was  attempted  to  be  poured  into 
its  mouth,  the  greater  part  being  wasted,  and  the  animal  instantly 
expired.  I  regret  that  the  approaching  night,  and  the  man's  desire 
to  bury  the  carcass,  restricted  the  post-mortem  examination,  which 


BABIES.  115 

merely  went  to  show  that  upon  the  division  of  the  costal  cartilages 
the  lungs  protruded,  as  if  too  large  for  the  cavity  of  the  thorax,  and, 
being  cut  into,  poured  forth  a  frothy  mucus,  resembling  in  color  and 
consistence  soap  lather  ;  the  stomach  and  duodenum  were  filled  with 
the  matters  above  described  to  have  been  eaten,  not  however  im- 
pacted, probably  owing  to  the  premature  death.  I  have  little  doubt 
from  the  symptoms  that,  had  the  examination  gone  so  far,  the  ves- 
sels of  the  brain  and  spinal  cord  would  have  been  found  injected. 
The  splash  of  water  certainly  caused  disquietude ;  but,  inasmuch  as 
noise  of  any  sort  produced  similar  effects,  it  is  doubtful  whether 
aversion  to  fluids  existed  ;  and  yet  the  circumstance  of  death 
instantly  following  the  oil-draught,  would  warrant  the  belief  that 
spasms  of  the  muscles  of  deglutition,  with  the  temporary  closure 
of  the  glottis,  occasioned  suffocation  and  death." 

Among  all  the  numerous  cases  of  rabies  which  we  have  met  with 
in  the  course  of  our  practice,  we  have  never  had  the  opportunity  of 
examining  the  post-mortem  appearances  of  a  rabid  pig  ;  but  it  seems 
to  be  generally  admitted  by  those  who  have  done  so  that  there  is 
invariably  inflammation  about  the  glottis,  and  very  considerable  in- 
flammation of  the  villous  coat  of  the  stomach,  especially  about  the 
pylorus,  towards  the  cardia.  and  on  the  surface  of  the  two  rugae ;  in 
some  parts  the  inflammation  had  almost  merged  in  mortification. 
The  stomach  is  generally  filled  with  every  kind  of  filth  and  rubbish, 
and  the  bladder  distended  with  urine. 

The  disease  generally  appears  in  the  third  or  fourth  week  after  the 
animal  has  been  inoculated,  but  it  has  been  known  to  lie  dormant  for 
two  months. 

Incision  of  the  part  and  the  application  of  the  cautery  as  soon  as 
possible  after  the  animal  has  been  bitten,  are  the  only  preventive 
means :  cure  there  is  none  when  once  this  disease  has  made  its  ap- 
pearance, and  those  who  rely  on  the  infallible  nostrums  of  some 
learned  "pig-doctor,"  will  find  themselves  disappointed;  the  symp- 
toms may  be  alleviated  by  certain  drugs,  but  rabies  is  incurable. 

We  are  not  aware  that  rabies  has  ever  been  known  to  be  commu- 
nicated by  the  bite  of  a  pig,  but  Julian  Palmarius  states  that  he  has 
seen  horses,  cattle,  and  sheep,  become  rabid  from  eating  the  straw  in 
which  rabid  pigs  had  lain ;  and  Dr.  Shackmann  corroborates  the  fact. 

It  has  been  a  much  disputed  point  whether  or  not  the  flesh  of  ani- 
mals which  have  died  rabid  can  be  eaten  with  safety.  Two  eminent 
scientific  men  in  Paris  ate  of  such  flesh  without  experiencing  any  bad 
effects.  The  carcass  of  an  ox  that  had  been  bitten  by  a  rabid  dog, 
and  had  exhibited  all  the  symptoms  of  rabies,  was  cut  up  and  sold, 
but  it  did  not  appear  that  any  of  those  who  ate  of  it  experienced  the 
slightest  ir  convenience.  Again,  at  the  Royal  Veterinary  School  at 
Alford,  the  tongue  of  a  rabid  horse  -was  given  to  a  iog ;  the  animaj 
devoured  it,  and  lived  on  in  perfect  health. 


116  THE  HOG. 

But  the  opposite  party  bring  forward  as  many  authenticated  facts 
in  support  of  the  contrary  opinion,  and  the  one  with  which  we  now 
chiefly  have  to  do  is  narrated  by  Sehenkius :  "A  tavern-keeper  in 
the  duchy  of  Wurtemberg,  served  up  the  flesh  of  a  pig  that  had  died 
rabid  to  some  customers  who  were  dining  at  his  inn.  All  those  who 
partook  of  it  were  shortly  afterwards  attacked  with  rabies."  Pierre 
Borel  records  a  very  similar  case. 

We,  should  most  strongly  urge  the  prudence  of  abstaining  from  the 
flesh  of  all  rabid  animals,  and  not  only  of  abstaining  from  it  our- 
selves, but  putting  it  out  of  the  reach  of  other  animals ;  and  the  best 
way  to  do  this  is  to  bury  the  carcass  six  or  eight  feet  under  ground, 
and  cover  it  carefully  and  closely  up; 

NASAL   CATARRH. 

We  have  already  spoken  of  the  formation  of  the  nose  or  snout 
of  the  pig,  and  will  now  proceed  to  describe  a  disease  vulgarly  called 
the  snuffles,  or  sniffles.  It  is  characterized  by  defluxion  from  the 
nose  in  the  first  place,  and  its  advance  is  so  gradual  as  to  be  almost 
imperceptible.  But  it  gains  ground  daily — attacks  the  respiratory 
passages — cough  and  sneezing  come  on — there  is  evident  difficulty 
of  swallowing,  and  the  respiration  is  impeded  by  the  mucus  formed. 
After  some  time  the  membrane  of  the  nose  becomes  thickened,  the 
nostril  swelled  and  deformed,  and  the  snout  drawn  on  one  side.  Blood 
is  often  discharged  from  the  nostril,  and  when  this  has  been  the  case 
all  the  symptoms  are  abated  and  the  animal  seems  relieved  for 
awhile.  But  it  too  frequently  happens  that  this  discharge  or  he- 
morrhage returns  again  and  again,  each  time  in  increasing  quantities, 
until  the  strength  of  the  animal  becomes  so  undermined  that  not- 
withstanding the  utmost  care  and  the  most  nourishing  diet,  he  dies 
of  exhaustion,  or  perhaps,  as  it  may  be  more  properly  termed,  con- 
sumption. 

This  disease,  which  strongly  resembles  glanders  and  distemper, 
is  like  them  hereditary,  and  may  be  communicated  from  either  the 
male  or  female  parent.  It  also  results  from  exposure  to  damp  or 
cold. 

Emetics  and  tonics  are  the  best  means  of  combating  it.  A  solu- 
tion of  sulphate  of  copper  in  doses  of  from  three  to  five  grains 
morning  and  night  will  sometimes  eventually  effect  a  cure,  assisted 
by  strict  attention  to  diet  and  regimen.  But  in  by  far  the  majority 
of  cases  the  disease  runs  its  course  and  terminates  fatally,  for  it  haa 
generally  gained  the  upper  hand  before  much  notice  is  taken  of  it 

THE    LARYNX. 

This  instrument  of  voice  c/msiste  of  five  cartilages  united  to  one 
another  by  a  ligamentous  substance,  ^y  distinct  articulations,  and  by 


THE  LARYNX.  117 

ti  seemingly  compl  .cated  but  really  simple  muscular  apparatus.  In 
form  it  is  an  irregular  oblong  tube,  exceedingly  flexible,  and  capable 
of  adapting  itself  to  all  the  natural  or  morbid  changes  of  the  respi- 
ratory process,  and  to  the  production  of  all  the  various  intonations 
of  sound  or  voice  by  which  the  animal  expresses  his  emotions.  It  is 
placed  at  the  top  of  the  windpipe,  guards  the  exit  from  the  lungs,  and 
prevents  the  passage  of  food  into  the  respiratory  canals. 

The  Ericoid  cartilage  constitutes  the  base  and  support  of  this 
organ,  and  serves  in  great  measure  as  a  bond  of  union  to  the  rest. 

Placed  above  and  resting  upon  this  are  the  Arytenoid  cartilages^ 
prolongations  of  which  rest  upon  the  Chordae  vacates,  and  influence 
their  action.  The  vocal  ligaments  take  an  oblique  direction  across 
the  larynx  in  the  pig  instead  of  a  straight  one,  so  that  the  angle  is 
at  a  considerable  distance  from  the  thyroid  cartilage.  They  have 
also  a  curious  slanting  direction,  the  anterior  angle  being  depressed 
and  the  arytenoid  portion  elevated.  About  the  middle  of  the 
chordae  vocales,  and  immediately  above  them,  are  two  sacculi,  which 
are  generally  supposed  to  be  concerned  in  the  act  of  grunting.  From 
the  anterior  parts  of  the  larynx  springs  the  epiglottis,  a  heart-shaped 
cartilage  placed  at  the  extremity  of  the  opening  into  the  windpipe, 
with  its  back  opposed  to  the  pharynx  ;  its  use  is  this :  food  passing 
from  the  pharynx  in  its  way  to  the  oesophagus  presses  down  the 
epiglottis,  which,  closing  the  aperture  of  the  larynx,  prevents  any 
portion  of  the  food  from  entering  it.  As  soon  as  the  food  has  passed, 
the  elasticity  of  the  epiglottis,  assisted  by  that  of  the  membrane  at 
its  base,  and  still  more  by  the  power  of  the  hyo-epiglottideus  muscle, 
enables  that  cartilage  to  rise  up  and  resume  its  natural  position. 

The  thyroid  cartilage  envelops  and  protects  all  the  rest,  and 
shields  the  lining  membrane  of  the  larynx,  which  vibrates  under  the 
impulse  communicated  by  the  passage  of  the  air,  and  gives  the  tone 
or  voice. 

In  the  larynx  of  the  hog  we  find  that  beautiful  adaptation  of  means 
to  the  end.  The  space  between  the  arytenoid  cartilages  is  less, 
comparatively  speaking,  than  in  the  horse  or  dog,  speed  not  being 
required  in  swine.  The  epiglottis,  too,  is  larger  than  in  the  ox,  sheep, 
or  horse,  and  differently  constructed ;  it  is  more  flexible,  from  the 
cellular  ligamentous  substance  at  the  base  of  it  being  looser ;  and 
from  its  increased  size,  and  the  curved  direction  of  its  edges,  it  not 
only  covers  the  opening  into  the  windpipe,  but  in  a  manner  embraces 
the  arytenoid  cartilages  when  pressed  down  by  the  passage  of  food, 
a  formation  admirably  suited  to  an  animal  who  is  constantly  plunging 
his  nose  and  muzzle  into  the  mud  or  dirt,  and  who,  by  blowing  into 
his  food  in  the  peculiar  way  pigs  are  apt  to  do  in  order  to  stir  up  tho 
sediment,  would  otherwise  be  constantly  getting  some  irritating  and 
noxious  matters  into  his  windpipe.  The  inferior  cornu  of  the  thy« 
roid  bone  is  comparatively  more  developed  in  the  hog  than  in  other 
domesticated  animals. 


118  THE  HOG. 


THE    PHARYNX. 

The  pharynx,  to  which  we  just  now  alluded,  is  a  membranous, 
muscular,  funnel-shaped  bag,  extending  from  the  root  of  the  tongue 
to  the  larynx  and  oesophagus,  wide  in  front  and  becoming  gradually 
narrower  until  it  terminates  in  the  oesophagus.  Its  office  is  to  convey 
the  food  from  the  mouth  to  the  upper  part  of  the  gullet,  and  this  it 
performs  by  means  of  its  lining  muscles.  Properly  speaking,  we 
ought  perhaps  to  have  noticed  it  when  speaking  of  the  digestive 
system,  but  as  we  are  proceeding  from  the  head  to  the  neck  we  have 
included  it  in  this  division  of  our  subject. 

THE    OS    HYOIDES. 

This  is  a  body  which  embraces  the  thyroid  cartilage  of  the  larynx, 
and  gives  support  and  protection  to  it,  and  also  affords  attachments 
to  the  hyo-glossus  longus  muscle,  or  that  which  draws  the  tongue  into 
the  mouth ;  the  brevis,  which  fulfils  a  similar  office  ;  the  hyo-pharyn- 
geus,  which  dilates  the  pharynx ;  the  anterior  constrictor  pharyngeus, 
which  contracts  the  pharynx,  and  several  others. 

This  bone  in  the  human  being  is  supposed  to  resemble  the  Greek 
letter  upsilon ;  in  the  horse  it  may  be  compared  to  a  spur,  but  in 
the  swine  it  is  different.  This  animal  requires  a  freer  use  of  the 
tongue.  The  shorter  cornua  are  stronger  than  in  the  horse,  or  even 
the  ox  and  dog;  the  central  one  is  less  developed,  and  the  longer 
cornua  is  thin  and  insignificant.  There  is  also  considerably  less  liga- 
ment interposed  between  this  bone  and  the  thyroid  cartilage,  which 
it  almost  closely  embraces.  We  will  now  proceed  to  a  considera- 
tion of  the  diseases  of  the  throat  and  neck. 

STRANGLES    OR    QUINSY. 

These  diseases  are  of  very  frequent  occurrence,  and  as  they  are 
rapid  in  their  progress,  generally  exceedingly  fatal.  They  chiefly 
attack  fattening  hogs. 

The  glands  under  the  throat  begin  to  swell,  and  thus  affect  not 
only  the  respiratory  organs  but  the  act  of  swallowing*  impeded 
respiration,  hoarseness,  and  debility  then  supervene ;  the  pulse 
becomes  quick  and  unequal,  the  head  to  a  certain  extent  palsied,  the 
neck  "swells,  tumefies,  and  rapidly  goes  on  to  gangrene  ;  the  tongue 
hangs  from  the  mouth,  and  is  covered  with  slaver,  and  the  animal 
gradually  sinks.  In  the  commencement  of  the  disease  very  simple 
treatment,  as  cooling  medicines,  attention  to  diet,  and  care  and 
warmth,  will  often  suffice  to  check  it ;  but  when  the  swelling,  impeded 
respiration,  and  difficulty  of  swallowing  has  come  on,  recourse  must 
be  had  to  more  energetic  treatment.  Bleeding  and  purgatives  are 


STRANGLES.  119 

first  indicated ;  setons  and  puncture  of  the  swollen  glands  have  also 
been  recommended,  and  in  extreme  cases  there  is  no  reason  why  we 
should  not  have  recourse  to  blisters  and  external  stimulants  as 
counter-irritants. 

A  diseased  animal  should  never  be  allowed  to  remain  aomng 
healthy  ones,  as  this  malady  is  so  infectious  that  it  may  almost  be 
regarded  as  an  epizootic. 

Mr.  Cartwright,  veterinary  surgeon,  of  Whitchurch,  who  has  paid 
much  attention  to  the  diseases  of  swine,  gives  the  following  account 
of  some  fatal  cases  of  inflammation  of  the  glands  of  the  throat  in 
the  "  Veterinarian :" — He  says  that  he  had  six  pigs  attacked  at  nearly 
the  same  period.  Their  respiration  was  very  quick  ;  they  husked 
and  foamed  at  the  mouth.  They  could  not  bear  to  be  pressed  on 
the  throat,  and  swallowed  liquids  with  difficulty.  To  some  of  them 
jalap  was  given,  and  to  others  castor  and  goose  oil.  One  was  blis- 
tered under  the  throat,  and  all  bled  by  cutting  off  their  tails.  They 
died  in  the  course  of  eight-and-forty  hours  from  the  commencement 
of  the  disease. 

On  examination  he  found  much  inflammation  under  the  jaws  and 
throat,  and  also  much  of  swelling  with  effused  serum.  In  some  of 
their  windpipes,  and  the  branches  of  the  bronchia,  there  was  a  great 
quantity  of  mucus,  but  no  apparent  inflammation.  In  one  the  heart 
appeared  to  be  inflamed,  but  most  probably  sympathetically. 

Columella  thus  speaks  of  these  diseases : — "  Such  swine  as  have 
swellings  of  the  glands  under  the  throat  must  be  let  blood  under  the 
tongue ;  and  when  it  has  flowed  abundantly,  it  will  be  proper  that 
their  whole  mouth  be  rubbed  over  with  bruised  salt  and  wheat-meal. 
Some  think  it  a  more  present  and  effectual  remedy  when  they  pour 
into  each  of  them,  through  a  horn,  three  cupfuls  of  garum,  or  salt- 
fish  pickle ;  then  they  bind  cloven  tallies,  or  cuttings  of  fennel-giant 
with  a  flaxen  cord,  and  hang  them  about  the  necks,  so  that  the  swell- 
ings shall  be  touched  with  the  fennel-giant  cuttings." 

If  we  may  judge  by  the  writings  of  the  ancients,  the  most  preva- 
lent diseases  among  pigs  were  those  of  the  glands  of  the  throat. 
Didymus  gives  a  long  and  accurate  description  of  them. 

Hurtrel  D'Arboval  also  gives  an  account  of  a  disease  of  the  glands 
of  the  throat,  which  he  denominates  Poll  pique,  maladie  piquante,  or 
soie,  and  states  it  to  be  peculiar  to  swine  :  he  thus  describes  it : — 

It  is  situated  on  one  or  both  sides  of  the  neck,  between  the  jugular 
vein  and  the  tracheal  artery.  On  the  part  affected  is  seen  a  raised 
tuft  of  hairs,  differing  from  any  of  the  others,  being  hard,  rough,  dull, 
and  discolored,  and  exceedingly  painful  to  the  touch;  and  if  one  be 
pulled  out  the  skin  comes  away  with  it.  At  first  there  is  only  a 
slight  depression  or  concavity  of  the  part ;  but  the  skin  soon  becomes 
red,  then  violet-colored,  the  hairs  conglomerate,  the  parts  become 
softened,  tumefied,  and  even  proceed  to  mortification.  Meanwhili 


120  THE  HOG. 

the  animal  betrays  symptoms  of  thirst,  there  is  dulness,  loss  of  ap« 
petite,  and  grinding  of  the  teeth.  As  the  malady  progresses  the 
patient  becomes  inert,  deaf,  insensible  to  blows,  lies-down  constantly, 
and  totters  and  falls  if  compelled  to  rise ;  the  flanks  heave,  the  mouth 
is  hot  and  full  of  slaver,  the  tongue  red  and  inflamed,  the  lower  jaw 
convulsed,  and  the  conjunctiva  injected ;  the  animal  utters  plaintive 
moans,  and  if  not  speedily  relieved  dies  of  suffocation,  from  the 
"effects  of  the  pressure  of  the  tumor  upon  the  air-passages. 

D'Arboval  attributes  this  disease  to  the  irritation  caused  in  some 
of  the  cutical  tissues  by  the  abnormal  growth  of  the  tuft  of  hair, 
which,  uniting  with  some  internal  sympathetic  irritation  induced  by 
heating  food,  damp  litter,  hot  ill-ventilated  styes,  or  such  like  preju- 
dicial influences,  acts  locally  and  determines  this  disease  of  the 
glands.  Other  French  writers  believe  it  to  be  epizootic  and  to  arise 
from  certain  miasmatic  influences. 

Tonics,  acidulated  drinks,  warmth,  cleanliness,  strict  attention  to 
diet,  and  the  application  of  actual  cautery  to  the  root  of  the  evil — 
the  tuft  of  hair — is  the  treatment  prescribed. 

THE  CHEST  OR  THORAX. 

In  the  human  being  this  constitutes  the  superior,  and  in  quadru 
peds  the  anterior  portion  of  the  body ;  it  is  separated  from  the 
abdomen  by  the  diaphragm.  This  latter  is  of  a  musculo-membra- 
nous  nature,  and  is  the  main  agent  in  respiration ;  in  its  quiescent 
state  it  presents  its  convex  surface  towards  the  thorax,  and  its  con- 
cavity towards  the  abdomen.  The  anterior  convexity  abuts  upon 
the  lungs,  the  posterior  concavity  is  occupied  by  a  portion  of  the 
abdominal  viscera.  The  diaphragm  of  the  pig  resembles  that  of  the 
ox  and  sheep. 

The  chest  is  divided  into  two  cavities  by  a  membrane  termed  the 
mediastinum,  which  evidently  consists  of  a  duplicate  of  the  pleura 
or  lining  membrane  of  the  thorax.  The  pleura  is  a  serous  membrane 
possessed  of  little  or  no  sensibility,  and  acted  upon  by  but  few 
nerves.  It  it  smooth  and  polished ;  covers  the  bony  wall  of  the 
thorax  from  the  spine  to  the  sternum,  and  from  the  first  rib  to  the 
diaphragm,  and  dilating  and  forming  a  kind  of  bag  which  spreads 
over  and  contains  the  whole  of  the  lung. 

The  lungs  form  two  distinct  bodies,  the  right  being  somewhat  larger 
than  the  left  one  ;  they  are  separated  from  each  other  by  that  folding 
over  of  the  pleura  termed  the  mediastinum,  and  hence  may  be  said 
to  be  inclosed  in  separate  bags,  or  to  have  distinct  pleuras.  Each 
lung  is  subdivided.  The  right  one  consists  of  three  unequal  lobes, 
the  smallest  of  which  is  again  subdivided  into  numerous  lobules, 
differing  in  number  in  different  swine.  The  left  lung  consists  of  two 
lobes,  and  the  scissure  between  these  is  not  very  deep. 


THE  HEART.  121 

Beneath  the  left  lung  the  heart  is  situated  and  partially  inclosed  in 
another  membranous  bag  termed  the  pericardium,  which  closely 
invests,  supports,  and  protects  it.  The  heart  has  two  sides,  the  one 
devoted  to  the  circulation  of  the  blood  through  the  lungs,  and  the 
other  to  its  circulation  through  the  frame  generally.  Each  side  is 
divided  into  two  compartments,  the  one  above,  the  other  below, 
which  are  termed  the  auricles  and  ventricles.  The  right  auricle  as 
well  as  the  ventricle  is  larger  than  the  left,  and  its  parietes  are  thinner. 
The  longitudinal  tendinous  cords  of  the  ventricle  are  more  firm  and 
distinct  in  the  pig  than  in  the  ox  or  sheep,  and  the  fleshy  prominences 
shorter.  The  tendinous  cords  of  the  left  ventricle  are  few  in  num- 
ber, large,  and  ill  defined.  The  aorta  of  the  pig  separates  almost 
immediately  after  its  commencement  into  two  trunks,  the  smaller  of 
which  leads  forwards  and  gives  forth  those  arteries  which  in  other 
animals  arise  from  the  cross  of  this  artery ;  and  the  other,  which  is 
longer  in  diameter,  inclines  backwards  :  these  are  usually  termed  the 
anterior  and  posterior  aorta. 

The  beating  of  the  heart  may  be  felt  on  the  left  side,  whence  also 
the  pulse  may  be  taken,  or  from  the  femoral  artery  which  crosses 
the  inside  of  the  thigh  in  an  oblique  direction.  In  swirie  in  a  state 
of  health  the  pulsations  are  from  seventy  to  eighty  in  a  minute. 


DISEASED  VALVES  OF  THE  HEART. 

This  appears  to  be  a  more  common  malady  than  is  generally 
suspected,  for  in  repeated  cases  of  sudden  death,  where  a  post-mor- 
tem examination  has  been  made,  there  have  been  found  fleshy  ex- 
crescences  or  tumors  on  the  tricuspid  valves.  We  believe  Mr. 
Cartwright,  whose  name  we  have  already  mentioned,  was  one  of  the 
first  persons  who  drew  attention  to  this  disease.  The  only  marked 
precursory  symptoms  appear  to  be  inappetency  and  very  shortly 
before  death  difficulty  of  breathing  and  evident  distress.  In  one 
pig  that  died  thus  suddenly,  Mr.  Cartwright  found  several  uneven 
watery  excrescences,  some  as  large  as  marbles,  growing  from  the 
edge  of  the  auricula-ventricular  valves  of  the  left  side  ;  also  several 
small  papillary  growths,  all  of  which  served  three  parts  to  close  up 
the  ventricular  opening. 

In  another  case  he  found  a  loose,  jagged,  watery  excrescence  grow- 
ing from  the  whole  surface  of  the  tricuspid  valves,  closing  up,  in  a 
great  measure,  the  ventricular  opening,  and  projecting  at  least  half 
an  inch  into  the  left  auricle.  In  a  third,  the  valves  of  the  left  auri- 
cle were  thickened,  schirrous,  and  presented  a  ragged  uneven  sur- 
face. The  orifice  of  the  ventricle  was  almost  closed  up  by  this  dis- 
eased substance,  and  a  portion  had  forced  its  way  into  the  aorta. 
This  disease  was  always  found  in  the  left  side  of  the  heart,  and  ill 
6 


THE  HOG. 

no  case  did  it  extend  beyond  the  circumference  of  the  valves ;  the 
lining  membrane  of  the  heart  always  remained  intact. 

BRONCHIAL    TUBES. 

Swine  are  very  susceptible  of  bronchitis,  and  also  liable  to  worms 
in  the  bronchia,  both  of  which  affections  manifest  themselves  under 
the  form  of  cough,  inappetency,  and  loss  of  flesh.  The  former  may 
be  subdued  by  bleeding  and  cooling  medicines,  as  sulphur,  cream  of 
tartar,  or  pulv.  antimonialis  :  the  latter  almost  invariably  cause  the 
death  of  the  animal  from  the  irritation  they  create  and  the  iiiflam 
mation  which  is  thus  set  up. 
m-n 

INFLAMMATION  OF    THE    LUNGS. 

This  disease  is  perhaps  more  generally  known  under  the  term  of 
rising  of  the  lights  ;  it  is  one  of  the  most  prevalent  and  too  often  the 
most  fatal  of  all  the  maladies  that  infest  the  sty.  It  has  been  sup- 
posed by  some,  persons  to  be  contagious,  by  others  to  be  hereditary, 
but  there  does  not  appear  to  be  any  actual  foundation  for  either  of 
these  opinions.  By  far  the  most  probable  supposition  is,  that  it  arises 
from  some  atmospheric  influences  or  agencies  which  create  a  ten- 
dency to  pulmonary  affections,  and  these,  acting  upon  a  system 
heated  and  predisposed  to  disease  by  the  mode  of  feeding  adopted 
in  most  piggeries,  give  a  serious  and  inflammatory  character  to  that 
which  would  otherwise  be  merely  a  simple  attack  of  catarrh ;  or  it 
may  arise  from  some  irritating  influence  in  the  food  itself,  or  from 
damp,  ill- ventilated  styes :  whatever  be  its  cause,  it  generally  runs 
through  the  whole  piggery  when  it  does  make  its  appearance.  The 
prominent  indications  of  disease  are  loss  of  appetite,  incessant  and 
distressing  cough,  and  heaving  at  the  flanks. 

As  soon  as  the  first  symptoms  are  perceived,  the  animal  should 
be  bled ;  the  palate  perhaps  will  be  the  best  place  in  this  case  to 
take  blood  from  ;  purgatives  must  then  be  given,  but  cautiously ; 
Epsom  salts  and  sulphur  will  be  the  best,  administered  in  a  dose  of 
from  two  to  four  drachms  of  each,  according  to  the  size  of  the  ani- 
mal. To  these  may  succeed  sedative  medicines :  digitalis,  two 
grains,  pulv.  antimonialis,  six  grains,  nitre,  half  a  drachm,  forms  a 
very  efficient  and  soothing  medicament  for  moderate-sized  pigs,  and 
will  often  produce  very  satisfactory  effects ;  cleanliness,  warmth,  and 
wholesome,  cooling,  nutritious  food,  are  likewise  valuable  aids  in 
combating  this  disease.  But  whatever  measures  are  taken,  they 
must  be  prompt;  for  inflammation  of  the  lungs  runs  its  course 
with  rapidity  and  intensity,  and,  while  we  pause  to  consider  what  *s 
best  to  be  done,  saps  the  vital  energies  of  the  patient. 


EPIDEMICS.  123 


PLEURO-PNEUMONIA. 

This  disease  often  breaks  out  among  pigs  as  well  as  horses,  cattle, 
and  sheep,  and  commits  great  devastation.  We  shall  quote  some 
accounts  of  its  progress,  treatment,  and  post-mortem  appearances 
given  by  English  and  foreign  veterinarians,  by  whom  it  is  classed 
under  the  head  of 

EPIDEMICS. 

M.  Saussol  narrates  that  during  the  summer  of  1821  nearly  all 
the  swine  in  the  neighborhood  of  Mazamet  were  attacked  by  a  vio- 
lent and  mortal  disease  that  spared  neither  age  nor  sex.  fat  nor  lean. 
He  rates  its  ravages  at  about  one-fifth  of  every  four  hundred  pa- 
tients. 

The  first  symptoms  were  inappetency,  thirst,  dullness,  groaning, 
and  seeking  of  moist  places ;  then  followed  hardness  of  the  belly, 
heat  of  the  skin,  constipation,  diminution  of  the  urine,  difficulty  of 
respiration,  heaving  of  the  flanks,  and  short  cough ;  the  eyes  were 
full  of  tears,  and  the  mucous  membranes  inflamed.  All  these 
symptoms  came  on  in  the  course  of  twelve  hours.  If  the  disease 
continued,  the  succeeding  symptoms  were  still  more  alarming  ;  the 
animals  began  to  stagger  about,  the  limbs  were  stretched  out  in  an 
unnatural  position,  rattling  in  the  throat  came  on,  they  supported 
themselves  against  the  wall,  and  only  fell  to  die  a  few  minutes  after- 
wards. Death  usually  came  about  the  third  day,  and  was  in  some 
cases  preceded  by  convulsions  of  the  face  and  extremities. 

Treatment. — Copious  bleedings  from  the  sacro-coccygean  arteries 
and  veins,  or,  if  these  did  not  yield  blood  enough,  amputation  of  the 
tail,  hot  baths,  a  seton  covered  with  blistering  ointment  inserted  in 
the  chest,  camphorated  and  laxative  drenches,  and  a  decoction  of 
borage,  mallows,  and  lettuces,  slightly  acidulated,  to  drink. 

Causes. — Exposure  to  the  heat  of  the  sun,  want  of  water,  feeding 
on  dry  plants ;  returning  home  in  the  evening  exhausted,  receiving  a 
hearty  feed,  and  being  then  shut  up  in  ill-ventilated  styes  without 
drink  until  morning. 

Preventive  treatment. — Troughs  of  acidulated  nitrated  water  placed 
in  the  styes  and  frequently  renewed ;  non-exposure  to  the  heat  of 
the  day,  means  of  bathing,  bleeding,  cleanliness,  and  ventilation; 
moderate  feeding,  and  gentle  exercise  after  the  sun  had  set.  These 
precautionary  measures,  M.  Saussol  says,  arrested  the  progress  of 
the  disease. 

Post-mortem  appearances. — The  thoracic  cavity  was  filled  with 
bloody  limpid  fluid;  the  lungs  much  inflamed;  the  pleura  thick- 
ened, inflamed,  arid  injected  ;  the  diaphragm  covered  with  black 
patches  of  the  size  of  a  shilling ;  the  mucous  coat  of  the  intestines 


124  THE  HOG. 

slightly  inflamed ;  the  windpipe  and  bronchial  tubes  full  of  reddish 
froth ;  the  brain  covered  with  reddish  serosity. 

The  next  account  we  come  to  gives  a  description  of  a  somewhat 
different  epidemic  which  occurred  in  Aveyron  and  its  environs,  attack- 
ing both  the  respiratory  and  digestive  organs,  and  running  its  course 
with  astonishing  vigor  and  rapidity,  frequently  sweeping  off  all  the 
inhabitants  of  a  piggery  in  from  twelve  to  fourteen  hours,  and  in  the 
more  virulent  cases  in  less  than  half  this  time. 

Symptoms. — In  the  worst  cases  these  are  sudden  loss  of  appetite, 
small  and  frequent  pulse,  haggard  eyes,  the  conjunctiva  inflamed,  the 
mouth  open,  red,  and  filled  with  foam,  the  respiration  laborious, 
plaintive  cries,  convulsions,  palsy  of  the  hind  limbs,  and  involuntary 
discharge  of  highly  fetid  faeces.  Death  here  is  the  inevitable  termi- 
nation, and  that  in  a  short  time.  But  where  the  progress  of  the  dis- 
ease is  less  rapid,  the  symptoms  assume  a  milder  form,  and  medical 
aid  is  available  and  often  beneficial.  Pregnant  sows  escape  the 
attack  of  this  malady,  but  as  soon  as  they  have  farrowed  they  lose 
this  immunity  and  they  and  their  young  take  it.  It  also  seems  to 
spare  leprous  swine.  It  appears  at  all  seasons  of  the  year,  but  is 
most  malignant  in  the  summer  and  at  the  commencement  of  autumn. 
There  can  be  no  doubt  as  to  its  contagion,  and  from  some  experi- 
ments made,  it  can  be  reproduced  in  other  animals  by  inoculation, 
particularly  in  sheep.  The  flesh  of  pigs  that  have  died  of  this  dis- 
ease has  been  given  to  dogs  and  eaten  by  them  without  producing 
any  bad  effects. 

Causes. — Unwholesome  food,  ill-ventilated  styes,  want  of  attention 
to  cleanliness,  exposure  to  heat,  wet,  or  cold,  are  the  predisposing 
causes ;  and  probably  some  miasmatic  influence  develops  the  disease. 

Treatment. — In  the  most  virulent  cases  almost  all  modes  of  treat- 
ment are  unsuccessful ;  or  if  they  do  succeed  in  rescuing  the  animal 
from  death,  he  generally  falls  into  a  state  of  marasmus,  or  becomes 
paralytic.  In  the  milder  cases  the  following  means  have  often  proved 
efficient :— Seton  in  the  chest ;  a  decoction  of  sorel,  with  camphor, 
nitre,  and  calomel,  as  a  drench ;  emollient  injections,  slightly  acidu- 
lated ;  stimulating  frictions  of  the  dorsal  and  lumbar  regions,  or 
bathing  these  parts  with  hot  vinegar  ;  and  water  thickened  with  oat 
or  barley-meal  as  the  sole  diet  and  drink.  Venesection  is  here  dan- 
gerous, tending  only  to  undermine  the  strength  of  the  patient,  this 
disease  being  evidently  one  which  alters,  decomposes,  and  vitiates 
the  blood.  Acetate  of  ammonia,  administered  in  doses  proportionate 
to  the  size  of  the  patient,  has  been  of  service.  Purgatives  should  be 
avoided,  as  they  are  of  very  uncertain  benefit.  Directly  an  animal  is 
attacked  he  should  be  removed  from  the  others,  and  placed  in  some 
comfortable  place. 

Prevention. — Strict  attention  to  diet,  cleanliness,  ventilation,  and 
comfort  j  and  a  plentiful  supply  of  clean  water,  both  for  the  animals 


EPIDEMICS.  126 

to  drink  and  to  bathe  themselves  in.  In  cold  and  rainy  weather 
they  ahould  be  kept  in  their  styes ;  and  during  the  heat  of  summer 
their  drink  should  be  slightly  nitrated,  acidulated,  or  salted.  Whey 
is  an  excellent  thing  for  those  that  are  weakly.  Small  doses  of 
camphor  and  nitre,  with  the  addition  of  a  few  grains  of  calomel,  ad 
ministered  in  some  cooling  vegetable  decoction,  is  a  useful  preventive. 
If  one  pig  is  attacked  he  should  be  removed,  and  the  others  taken 
out  while  the  sty  is  well  fumigated. 

In  1838  we  have  accounts  of  an  inflammatory  epizootic  among 
pigs,  rapid  and  fatal  in  its  course,  and  attacking  by  preference  store 
pigs  rather  than  those  put  up  to  fatten. 

Symptoms. — Prostration  of  strength,  difficulty  of  breathing,  dis- 
charge from  the  mouth  and  nostrils,  constant  cough,  and  reddish 
hue  of  the  skin.  These  went  on  increasing  in  intensity  until  death 
put  a  period  to  them,  which  usually  occurred  in  from  three  days  to 
three  days  and  a-half  after  the  commencement  of  the  attack. 

Treatment. — Bleeding  and  laxative  medicines,  stimulating  frictions 
of  the  trachea  and  parietes  of  the  thorax,  seemed  to  be  the  most 
efficient  remedies.  Doses  of  tartarized  antimony  and  Hydrarg.  Sub. 
Mur.  in  three  grains  of  each,  administered  every  twelfth  hour,  pro- 
duced vomiting,  and  appeared  to  give  ease.  Sulphate  of  magnesia 
relieved  those  cases  in  which  there  was  constipation. 

The  causes  seemed  obscure.  The  epidemic  prevailed  in  the  sum- 
mer ;  but  whether  it  arose  from  the  warmth  of  the  weather,  from 
want  of  a  sufficient  supply  of  water,  or  from  dry  and  heating  food, 
was  not  at  all  evident. 

Paulet  has  described  a  very  similar  epidemic  among  swine,  which 
frequently  prevails  in  one  or  the  other  of  the  arrondissements  of  the 
south  of  France.  He  describes  it  as  highly  inflammatory,  rapidly 
going  on  to  gangrene,  and  exceedingly  contagious,  but  is  at  a  loss  to 
what  cause  to  attribute  it. 

The  precursory  symptoms  are,  according  to  him,  restlessness, 
cough,  loss  of  appetite,  dullness,  and  a  weak  tottering  gait.  These 
gradually  go  on  increasing  in  intensity  until  the  seventh  or  eighth 
day,  when  they  have  become  very  marked.  Then  alternations  of 
heat  and  coldness  of  the  body  come  on ;  the  ears  droop  and  are  cold, 
the  head  is  heavy,  and  the  tongue  becomes  discolored ;  the  breath  is 
fetid,  and  there  is  a  copious  discharge  of  mucus  from  the  nostrils. 
The  skin  is  tinged  with  red,  but  the  hue  is  not  very  evident  except- 
ing under  the  belly :  the  animal  appears  to  be  in  great  suffering, 
and  cries  out  pitifully.  This  general  inflammation  of  the  integu- 
ments rapidly  goes  on  to  gangrene,  which  alteration  is  evidenced 
by  the  livid  violet  hue  of  the  diseased  surfaces.  Death  then  rapidly 
follows. 

He,  too,  prescribes  bleeding,  and  from  the  ears  and  veins  of  the 
belly,  while  many  authors  condemn  it  as  debilitating.  The  only 


126  THE  HOG. 

thing  he  recommends  besides,  is  thin  oatmeal  gruel,  acidulated  with 
white-wine  vinegar  ;  for  he  appears  to  consider  the  malady  to  be  so 
fatal  that  medical  treatment  avails  nothing  against  it.  Here,  how- 
ever, we  cannot  but  deem  him  wrong  ;  many  of  the  most  virulent, 
and,  if  neglected,  fatal  of  the  diseases  to  which  our  domesticated 
animals  are  subject,  will  yield  to  the  influence  of  a  judicious  course 
of  treatment,  and  many  a  valuable  animal  has  been  saved  by  the 
skill  and  attention  of  a  veterinary  surgeon.  We  should  recommend 
laxative  drenches,  stimulating  frictions,  warmth,  and  cleanliness,  and 
a  seton  in  the  chest. 

In  the  epidemic  which  prevailed  in  1841,  throughout  the  greater 
part  of  England,  swine  were  affected,  as  well  as  horses,  cattle,  and 
sheep,  and  often  took  it  before  any  of  the  rest  of  the  stock,  but  in 
general  had  it  more  mildly.  This  malady  was  of  a  highly  contagious, 
inflammatory  character,  and  affected  chiefly  the  mucous  and  secre- 
tory tissues.  When  once  it  entered  a  farm-yard,  it  spread  rapidly, 
until  every  ox,  sheep,  or  pig  was  infected,  and  in  some  instances  it 
passed  to  the  human  being.  Damp,  wet  weather  appeared  most 
favorable  to  its  development ;  and,  from  all  accounts,  it  seems  to 
have  arisen  from  some  atmospheric  agency. 

Symptoms. — Lameness  of  one  or  more  of  the  feet,  accompanied 
with  heat  around  the  hoof  and  lower  part  of  the  leg ;  discharge  of 
saliva  from  the  mouth  and  nostrils ;  champing  or  grinding  of  the 
lower  jaw ;  ulceration  of  the  mouth  and  tongue,  extending  even  to 
the  snout ;  dullness,  inappetency,  constipation,  rapid  emaciation,  and 
cough. 

Treatment. — The  ulcerated  portions  of  the  feet  and  the  detached 
pieces  of  horn  should  be  carefully  pared,  and  the  parts  daily  washed 
with  a  solution  of  blue  vitriol,  or  smeared  with  warm  tar ;  the  mouths 
also  dressed  with  a  strong  solution  of  alum ;  and  from  an  ounce  and 
a  half  to  two  ounces  of  Glauber  salts,  dissolved  in  water,  and  given 
in  their  food.  Where  the  malady  was  attacked  in  its  onset,  these 
simple  remedies  sufficed  to  produce  convalescence  in  from  fourteen 
to  one-and-twenty  days. 

Post-mortem  appearances. — There  were  patches  of  inflammation 
throughout  the  whole  of  the  intestines,  both  externally  and  inter- 
nally ;  the  liver  was  sound ;  the  heart  flabby  and  soft ;  the  lungs 
shrivelled,  flattened,  and  diminished  to  one  half  their  natural  size, 
and  in  some  cases  hepatized ;  the  diaphragm,  pleura,  and  bronchial 
tubes  of  a  greenish  hue,  and  evidently  gangrenous. 

The  flesh  of  pigs  that  had  died  of  this  epidemic  was  eaten  by 
some  persons  without  their  suffering  any  ill  effects;  nevertheless  the 
experiment  was  hazardous. 


ANATOMY  OF  THE  STOMACH.  127 


CHAPTER  VIII. 

Anatomy  of  the  Stomach  —  Gullet— Intestines  —  Duodenum— Jejunum— Ileum — Ccecum  and 
Colon  :  Diseases  to  which  these  parts  are  liable — Enteritis — Colic — Diarrhcea — Garget  of  the 
Maw — Anatomy  of  the  Liver  and  Spleen  :  Splenitis — Rupture  of  the  Spleen — Absorption  of 
the  Spleen— Peritoneum— Worms— The  Bladder  and  its  diseases— Protru»ion  of  the  Rectum. 

THE    GULLET. 

THE  gullet,  or  oesophagus,  is  a  musculo-membranous  tube,  com- 
mencing  at  the  pharynx,  passing  down  the  throat  on  the  left  side  of 
the  windpipe,  entering  the  chest  in  company  with  that  tube,  pene- 
trating through  the  folds  of  the  diaphragm,  and  terminating  in  the 
stomach  through  an  orifice  termed  the  cardia. 

THE   STOMACH. 

The  stomach  of  the  hog  is  a  much  more  simple  apparatus  than 
that  of  the  ox  and  sheep  ;  it  is  a  truly  omnivorous  one,  and  beauti- 
fully adapted  by  its  pyramidal  appendage  and  glandular  structure, 
as  well  as  by  the  villous  mucous  membrane  with  which  it  is  lined, 
for  the  digestion  of  the  heterogeneous  food  which  it  is  destined  to 
receive,  being,  perhaps,  more  analogous  to  that  of  the  horse  than  to 
any  other  animal.  In  form  it  is  globulous.  Its  large  blind  cavity 
is  very  voluminous,  and  is  surmounted  in  front  by  a  hood-like  ap- 
pendage. The  narrow  long  portion  which  abuts  on  the  pylorus, 
greatly  resembles  this  hood-shaped  appendage.  On  each  side  of 
the  cardia  are  two  transversal  folds,  and  the  cardia  itself  is  half  way 
between  the  pylorus  and  the  large  cavity. 

The  stomach  has  three  coats, — the  outermost,  or  peritoneum,  which 
constitutes  the  common  covering  of  all  the  intestines ;  the  muscular 
or  fibrous  coat,  which  acts  upon,  and  mingles  the  food,  and  prepares 
it  for  digestion ;  and  the  mucous  or  villous  coat,  which  is  peculiarly 
developed  in  the  pig,  and  into  which  open  the  mouths  of  numerous 
little  vessels,  conveying  the  gastric  juice  to  the  semi-digested  food, 
and  by  its  action  conveying  it  into  a  pultaceous  fluid,  commonly 
•^lled  chyme. 

THE    INTESTINES. 

» 

The  intestines  of  the  hog  bear  a  stronger  resemblance  to  those  of 
the  human  being  than  we  find  in  anv  other  animal.  They  are  six- 
teen times  the  length  of  the  body  of  the  animal,  and  the  proportions 
of  the  small  intestines  to  the  large,  are  as  three  to  one.  They  are 
composed  of  four  coats  or  layers.  The  outer  or  peritoneal  cue  is 


128  THE   HOG. 

formed  of  that  membrane  which  invests  and  retains  in  its  proper 
position  every  portion  of  the  contents  of  the  belly.  The  second 
layer  is  muscular,  and  by  its  action  propels  the  contents  of  the 
stomach  gradually  onward's.  The  office  of  the  third  is  to  lubricate 
the  innermost  coat,  and  for  this  purpose,  it  is  supplied  with  nume- 
rous glands  surrounded  by  cellular  tissue.  The  fourth  or  lining 
coat  is  soft,  villous,  and,  in  a  healthy  state,  always  covered  with 
mucus.  The  food,  having  been  sufficiently  converted  into  chyme 
by  the  action  of  the  stomachs,  is  gradually  propelled  through  the 
pyloric  orifice  by 

THE    DUODENUM, 

or  first  intestine,  where  it  is  submitted  to  the  influence  of  two  fluids, 
the  one  secreted  by  the  pancreas,  the  other  by  the  liver,  and  the 
combined  action  of  which  separates  the  nutritious  from  the  worthless 
portion,  causing  the  former  to  assume  the  appearance  of  a  thick 
whitish  fluid,  and  the  latter  that  of  a  yellow  pulpy  substance.  It 
next  passes  into 

THE   JEJUNUM    AND    ILEUM, 

where  it  undergoes  still  further  alteration,  and  whence  a  considera- 
ble portion  of  it  is  taken  up  by  the  lacteal  vessels  which  open  into 
these  two  small  intestines,  and  conveyed  away  to  nourish  the  frame, 
and  become  mingled  with  the  blood  and  supply  the  waste  in  it. 
These  intestines  are  of  equal  diameter  in  the  pig  throughout  their 
whole  extent,  and  the  termination  of  the  jejunum  and  commence- 
ment of  the  ileum  is  by  no  means  distinctly  defined ;  the  latter  is, 
however,  longer  than  the  former,  and  opens  into 


THE   CCECUM 


with  a  valvular  opening  close  to  the  aperture  into  the  colon.  The 
coscum  is  a  kind  of  bag  supplied  with  numerous  secretory  glands, 
which  furnish  it  with  a  fluid  which  once  more  acts  upon  those  por- 
tions of  the  digested  food  which  reach  it,  extracting  from  them  any 
nutritive  portions  which  may  chance  still  to  remain.  The  matter 
having  reached  the  base  of  this  intestine,  is  returned  by  the  muscu- 
lar action  of  its  coat,  and  being  prevented  by  the  valve  from  re- 
entering  the  ileum,  passes  into 

THE  COLON, 

the  largest  of  the  large  intestines,  some  of  the  convolutions  of  which 
equal  the  stomach  in  size,  while  others  are  as  small  as  the  small  in- 
testines.  Here  the  watery  parts  of  the  mass  are  extracted,  and  tht, 
residuum  or  hard  faecal  portion  is  retained  for  awhile,  and  finally 
expelled  through  the  rectum.  It  will  be  readily  imagined  that  this  com- 


ENTERITIS.  129 

plicated  and  beautiful  process  must  occasionally  become  deranged 
by  various  causes,  and  that  hence  will  arise  different  diseases  of 
a  more  or  less  serious  nature.  This  is,  however,  less  the  case  in 
swine  than  in  most  of  our  other  domesticated  animals,  from  the 
circumstance  of  their  stomachs  and  intestines  being  prepared  by  the 
softening  power  of  their  highly  mucous  villous  lining  for  the 
reception  and  digestion  of  a  heterogeneous  mass  of  food,  which  to 
other  animals  would  be  actually  poisonous;  rendering  it  evident 
that,  although  the  hog  in  a  state  of  nature  is  a  herbivorous  animal, 
he  was  also  destined  to  become  omnivorous  for  the  service  of  man. 


ENTERITIS. 

This  disease  consists  in  inflammation  of  one  or  more  of  the  coats 
of  the  intestines,  and  is  capable  of  being  produced  by  various  irri- 
tating causes,  as  the  foul  air  of  badly  ventilated  styes,  unwholesome 
food,  &c. 

The  symptoms  are  dullness,  loss  of  appetitite,  constipation,  spasms, 
or  convulsions,  continued  restless  motion,  either  to  and  fro,  or  round 
and  round,  staggering  gait,  evident  symptoms  of  suffering. 

The  most  successful  treatment  is  warm  baths,  dry  litter,  and  gene- 
ral warmth  and  comfort;  and  internally,  purgatives  and  enemas. 
Castor  oil,  calomel,  or  rhubarb,  are  the  best  purgatives  for  cases  of 
this  nature,  and  the  enemas  should  be  of  an  emollient  oleajginous 
nature.  The  diet  should  be  restricted  to  the  simplest  and  lightest, 
food  ;  oatmeal,  porridge,  skim-milk,  or  whey,  are  the  best  things. 

COLIC. 

The  hog  is  frequently  attacked  by  this  malady,  which  generally 
arises  from  unwholesome  food,  cold,  or  wet  filthy  styes ;  and  is  evi- 
denced by  restlessness,  cries  of  pain,  rolling  on  the  ground,  &c.  A 
dose  of  castor  oil  proportionate  to  the  size  of  the  patient,  with  per- 
haps a  little  of  ginger  in  it,  and  administered  in  warm  milk,  will 
generally  give  speedy  relief;  or  if  the  first  should  not,  the  dose 
must  be  repeated.  Some  practitioners  recommend  Glauber's  or 
Epsom  salts,  but  we  consider  oleaginous  purgatives  to  be  best 
adapted  for  attacks  of  colic. 

DIARRHCEA. 

This  is  a  disease  very  common  among  all  our  young  domesticated 

animals,  and  one  that  is  also  repeatedly  met  with  in  older  ones ;  a 

scanty  allowance,  or  unwholesome  food  will  produce  it,  as  will  also 

over  feeding,  or  too  nutritious  diet     It  consists  in  a  frequent  disK 

6* 


130  THE  HOG. 

charge  of  the  fsecal  matter  in  a  thin  or  slimy  state,  but  not  actualiy 
altered,  and  arises  from  inflammation  or  congestion  of  the  mucous 
lining  of  the  intestines.  What  we  conceive  to  be  an  attack  of  diar- 
rhoea, is  often  only  an  effort  of  nature  to  throw  off  some  offensive 
matters,  and  will  cease  of  itself  in  the  course  of  twenty-four  It  »urs; 
but  where  it  goes  on  for  any  length  of  time,  it  must  be  taken  seri- 
ously in  hand,  as  it  will  otherwise  weaken  the  animal  and  impair  its 
value.  The  best  remedy  for  it  is  the  compound  commonly  called 
calves'  cordial,  viz :  Prepared  chalk,  one  ounce,  powdered  catechu, 
half  an  ounce,  powdered  ginger,  two  drachms,  powdered  opium,  half 
a  drachm,  mixed  and  dissolved  in  half  a  pint  of  peppermint  water. 
From  half  an  ounce  to  an  ounce  of  this  mixture,  according  to  the 
size  of  the  animal,  should  be  given  twice  in  the  day ;  and  strict 
attention  paid  to  the  diet,  which  should  consist  as  much  as  pos- 
sible of  dry,  farinaceous  food. 

GARGET  OF  THE  MAW^ 

This  is  a  disorder  arising  from  repletion,  and  is  found  alike  in 
older  animals  and  in  sucking  pigs.  Its  symptoms  strongly  resemble 
those  of  colic.  The  remedies,  too,  are  purgatives.  Epsom  salts  is 
here,  perhaps,  as  good  a  thing  as  can  be  given,  in  doses  of  from  a 
quarter  of  an  ounce  to  an  ounce.  It  might  as  well  be  termed  in- 
digestion, for  such  it  actually  is,  the  stomach  being  overloaded  with 
food.  In  sucking  pigs  it  usually  arises  from  the  coagulation  of  milk 
in  the:  stomach. 

THE    LIVER. 

This  organ  in  swine  does  not  appear  to  be  so  subject  to  disease  as 
it  is  in  most  of  our  other  domesticated  animals ;  we  have  only, 
therefore,  to  glance  at  its  use  and  anatomy  as  we  pass.  It  is  smaller 
in  swine  than  in  sheep,  and  larger  than  we  find  it  in  the  dog,  in  ac- 
cordance with  that  anatomical  law,  which  seems  to  be  in  force  in  all 
animals  ;  namely,  that  the  size  of  the  liver  shall  be  in  inverse  pro- 
portion to  that  of  the  lungs.  It  is  situated  in  the  anterior  part  of 
the  abdomen,  and  its  upper  surface  rests  against  the  concavity  of 
the  diaphragm.  Its  office  is  to  receive  the  blood  that  is  returned 
from  the  intestines,  separate  from  it  and  secrete  the  fluid  termed 
bile,  and  then  forward  the  residue  of  the  blood  onwards  to  the 
lungs,  where  it  undergoes  the  usual  aerating  process,  and  becomes 
transmuted  into  arterial  blood. 

The  fluid  or  bile  thus  secreted,  when  in  a  healthy  state,  and  not  in 
undue  proportion,  stimulates  the  mucous  membrane,  and  increases 
the  peristaltic  motion  of  the  intestines,  excites  the  secretion  of  that 
mucus  requisite  to  preserve  these  parts  in  a  healthy  state,  hastens 


SPLENITTS.  181 

the  process  of  separating  the  nutritious  from  the  innutritions 
parts  of  the  food,  and  facilitates  the  escape  of  the  faecal  matters. 
It  also  acts  chemically  upon  the  various  substances  which  are  de 
voured  by  the  animal,  and  is  the  chief  agent  in.  neutralizing  the 
acidity  which  some  of  these  would  otherwise  create.  The  liver  of 
the  pig  has  four  distinct  lobes. 

THE    SPLEEN. 

In  the  hog  the  spleen  is  very  long,  and  nearly  of  a  uniform 
breadth  and  thickness  throughout  its  whole  extent.  It  lies  on 
the  left  side  of  the  abdomen,  and  is  attached  to  the  stomach  by 
the  folds  of  the  epiploon.  Its  texture  is  almost  like  that  of  a 
sponge  in  appearance,  consisting  of  innumerable  cells  of  every 
size  and  form,  yet  it  is  firm  to  the  touch.  In  color  it  is  a  dark, 
deep  reddish  brown. 

There  has  been  much  dispute  as  to  the  functions  and  use  of  this 
organ.  Some  persons,  arguing  from  its  situation,  contend  that  it  is 
a  powerful  agent  in  the  process  of  digestion ;  but  this  is  strongly 
negatived  by  the  fact,  that  it  has  been  removed  from  some  animals 
which  have  existed  for  a  considerable  time  afterwards,  without  appa- 
rent injury  to  that  function.  Others  again,  and  with  more  proba- 
bility, assume  that  it  has  to  do  with  the  coloring  and  conversion  of 
the  chyle  into  blood  as  it  passes  through  the  mesentery,  where  it 
becomes  mixed  with  the  red  coagulable  fluid  furnished  by  the  spleen. 
But  -*dth  these  physiological  questions  we  have  at  present  nothing 
to  do :  our  purpose  is  simply  to  consider  it  with  a  view  to  under- 
standing and  treating  those  diseases  of  which  it  is  not  unfrequently 
the  seat.  Little  attention  has  hitherto  been  paid  to  them,  probably 
from  their  symptoms  being  somewhat  obscure  ;  but  nevertheless, 
different  morbid  affections  of  the  spleen  are  by  no  means  uncommor 
among  the  lower  domesticated  animals.  This  viscus  is  often  rup- 
tured, distended  with  blood,  inflamed,  or  softened,  from  the  effects 
of  different  causes,  but  chiefly  of  damp,  heat,  or  foul  air. 

SPLENITTS. 

Swine  suffering  under  this  malady  are  restless  and  debilitated, 
shun  their  companions,  and  bury  themselves  in  the  litter.  There  is 
loss  of  appetite  and  excessive  thirst,  so  excessive  that  they  will  drink 
up  any  thing  that  comes  in  their  way.  no  matter  how  filthy.  The 
respiration  is  short ;  they  cough,  vomit,  grind  the  teeth,  and  foam 
at  the  rnouth ;  the  groin  is  wrinkled,  and  of  a  pale  brownish  hue, 
and  the  skin  of  the  throat,  chest,  and  belly,  (which  latter  is  hard  and 
tucked  up,)  is  tinged  with  black. 

The  remedies  are  copious  blood-letting,  gentle  purgatives,  as 
Epsom  or  Glauber's  salts,  followed  up  by  cooling  medicines.  Cold 


132  THE  HOG. 

lotions  of  vinegar  and  water,  to  bathe  the  parts  in  the  neighborhood 

of  the  spleen,  or  a  cold  shower-bath  applied  by  means  of  a  water- 

ing- pot,  are  also  efficacious  in  these  cases. 

Columella,  in  his  quiet  style,  thus  treats  of  this  disease : — 
"Also  the  pain  of  a  distempered  spleen  uses  to  plague  them ;  the 

which  chiefly  happens  when  there  chances  to  be  great  droughts,  and, 

is  the  Bucolic  poem  speaks — 

When  on  all  sides  the  apples  scattered  lie, 
Each  under  its  own  tree  ; 

for  it  is  an  insatiable  cattle  the  swine,  which  beyond  all  measure 
eagerly  seek  after  that  which  is  sweet.  They  labor  and  are  affected 
in  the  summer  and  early  autumn  with  a  swelling  or  growth  of  the 
spleen,  from  the  which  they  are  relieved  if  troughs  be  made  of  tama- 
risks and  butcher's  broom,  and  filled  with  water,  and  set  before  them 
when  they  are  thirsty ;  for  the  medicinal  juice  of  the  wood  being 
swallowed  with  the  drink,  puts  a  stop  to  their  intestinal  swelling." 

The  great  difficulty  here  is,  how  troughs  can  be  made  of  the 
museus  (butcher's  broom.)  In  all  probability  the  true  meaning  is, 
that  the  trough  should  be  lined  with  the  branches  of  this  plant ;  and 
the  tamarisks  signifies  doubtless  the  tamaricus  e  trunco  mentioned 
by  Pliny,  lib.  xxiv.  9,  where  he  speaks  of  canals  and  troughs  being 
made  of  the  tamarix.  Translators  are  given  occasionally  to  maka 
similar  mistakes  or  alterations  of  text. 

RUPTURE    OF    THE    SPLEEN. 

We  quote  this  case  from  the  "  Veterinarian11  for  1841  :— 
"A  pig  belonging  to  Mr.  Roberts  of  Whitchurch,  died  after  hav- 
ing only  been  ill  for  a  day  or  so,  and  that  unattended  by  any  defi- 
nite symptoms.  On  post-mortem  examination  the  spleen  was  found 
to  be  of  about  three  or  four  times  its  natural  size,  and  completely 
congested.  In  one  place  there  was  a  small  rupture  surrounded  with 
coagulated  blood.  All  the  other  viscera  were  perfectly  sound." 

ABSORPTION    OF    THE    SPLEEN. 

This  case  is  also  derived  from  the  same  source,  and  we  present  it 
to  our  readers  as  a  testimony  of  the  different  forms  of  disease  which 
occur  in  the  spleen  of  the  swine. 

"A  fat  pig,  weighing  fifteen  score,  was  killed,  and  upon  cutting  it 
up,  the  spleen  was  found  to  be  almost  entirely  absorbed.  It  was  of 
the  usual  length,  but  not  above  half  an  inch  in  width  or  the  eighth 
of  an  inch  in  thickness  in  any  part,  and  weighed  but  seven  drachms. 
What  there  was  of  it,  however,  appeared  to  be  perfectly  sound,  and 
ivas  surrounded  by  a  considerable  portion  of  adepts." 


WORMS   IN  THE  INTESTINES.  183 


PERITONEUM. 

This  portion  of  the  contents  of  the  abdomen  is  composed  of 
cellular  tissue,  and  amply  supplied  with  absorbent  vessels ;  its  office 
is  to  separate  the  different  viscera  from  each  other,  to  envelop  them, 
and  to  attach  them  to,  and  support  them  in  their  proper  position. 
It  is  subject  to  attacks  of  inflammation,  technically  termed 

PERITONITIS, 

th«  symptoms  of  which  closely  resemble  those  of  splenitis ;  and  the 
causes  too  are  very  similar,  being  chiefly  improper  food,  repletion, 
or  exposure  to  extremes  of  temperature.  Oleaginous  purgatives 
are  here  the  only  ones  which  are  admissible,  and  emollient  clysters ; 
great  attention  must  also  be  paid  to  the  diet,  and  nothing  of  an 
acrid  or  indigestible  nature  given  to  the  animal.  This  disease  is  too 
often  fatal,  gradually  wasting  away  its  victim.  The  post-mortem 
appearances  are  as  follows :  the  intestines  have  become  so  adherent 
to  each  other  that  it  is  scarcely  possible  to  believe  that  any  false 
membranes  were  ever  interposed ;  the  peritoneal  surfaces  present 
evidences  of  inflammation,  and  are  often  covered  with  confluent 
ulcerations  resembling  those  seen  in  glanders  of  the  horse  ;  there  is 
considerable  inflammation  of  the  muscular  coat  of  the  intestines,  and 
the  whole  of  these  parts  are  thickened  and  corrugated. 

WORMS    IN    THE    INTESTINES. 

These  entozoaria  are  very  troublesome  in  swine,  and  often  exceed 
ingly  fatal.  The  spiroptera  strongylina  is  of  the  kinds  most  con> 
mon  to  the  hog,  but  the  ascarides  tcenia  and  eckinorhinc  are  likewise 
often  found  in  considerable  numbers. 

The  presence  of  worms  may  be  inferred  when  the  animal  eats 
voraciously  and  yet  continues  lean  and  out  of  condition ;  coughs, 
runs  restlessly  about,  uttering  squeaks  of  pain,  becomes  savage, 
snapping  at  his  companions,  and  destroying  all  rabbits  and  poultry 
that  come  in  his  way.  The  excrements  are  generally  hard  and 
highly-colored,  the  eyes  sunken,  the  animal  becomes  daily  more 
debilitated,  and  frequent  attacks  resembling  colic  tend  still  further 
to  weaken  him.  Too  often  he  dies ;  for  before  these  symptoms 
have  been  noticed  the  evil  has  generally  attained  to  such  a  height 
as  to  be  beyond  the  power  of  medicine  ;  for  these  parasites,  and  the 
echinorhinc  especially,  multiply  with  incredible  rapidity. 

Drastic  purgatives  constitute  the  most  efficient  means  of  combat- 
ing worms ;  but  they  must  be  cautiously  administered,  as  they  are 
but  too  apt  to  dissolve  and  force  away  with  them  the  lining  mucus 
of  the  intestinal  canals.  Turpentine  is  exceedingly  destructive  to 


134  THE  HOG. 

worms,  and  although  to  many  of  our  domesticated  animals  a  dan. 
gerous  medicine,  it  may  be  administered  with  perfect  safety  to  the 
hog.  Common  salt  may  be  also  given  with  advantage,  and  should 
be  mingled  with  the  food.  Nor  must  it  be  supposed  that  because 
no  worms  are  seen  to  come  away  from  the  animal  the  treatment 
may  be  discontinued,  or  that  there  are  none ;  hundreds  of  them  die 
in  the  intestines,  and  there  become  digested  and  decomposed,  and 
go  through  the  same  processes  as  the  food. 

THE    BLADDER. 

This  organ  seems  to  be  but  little  subject  to  disease  in  swine. 
Its  position  beneath  the  rectum  and  genital  organs  contained  in  the 
pelvic  cavity  protects  it  in  all  animals  from  external  injuries ;  and 
the  pig  not  being  exposed  to  those  causes  which  render  the  horse 
and  dog  peculiarly  liable  to  disease  of  the  bladder,  namely,  speed, 
long  and  fatiguing  exercises,  &c.,  seems  to  be  comparatively  exempt 
from  it. 

There  is,  however,  a  case  narrated  in  the  "  Veterinarian,"  by  Mr. 
Reid,  V.  S.,  which  we  shall  quote. 

VESICAL    CALCULI. 

"A  barrow-pig  that  to  the  seventh  month  had  manifested  perfect 
health,  from  that  period  fell  rapidly  away  (although  its  appetite  re- 
mained unimpaired,)  so  much  so  in  fact  that  in  two  months  more  it 
was  a  mere  bag  of  bones,  and  the  owner  had  it  destroyed.  He 
attributed  this  decline  to  a  difficulty  in  passing  its  urine,  which  dis- 
tressed the  animal  to  such  a  degree  that  every  time  it  wanted  to 
stall  it  quite  moaned  with  pain,  rolling  upon  its  back,  arising,  and 
again  posturing  itself  for  stalling,  arching  its  spine,  and  making  vio- 
lent efforts,  which  too  often  were  ineffectual.  At  other  times,  and 
indeed  oflenest.  he  after  much  straining  succeeded  in  passing  a  little 
urine,  but  this  was  speedily  followed  by  fresh  efforts.  Occasionally, 
after  having  rolled  about  and  laid  on  its  back,  it  obtained  relief  by  a 
flow  of  urine  in  a  full  stream,  'fhe  urine  was  at  all  times  perfectly 
clear." 

This  account  was  sufficient  to  draw  Mr.  Reid's  attention  to  the 
presence  of  vesical  calculi.  He  regretted  that  he  had  not  been  called 
in  during  the  life  of  the  animal,  that  he  might  have  made  it  the  sub- 
ject  of  operation,  and  requested  permission  to  examine  the  carcass. 

The  bladder  was  half  full  of  limpid  urine,  in  which  floated  the 
stone.     The  internal  coat  of  the  bladder  about  the  inferior  part  ex 
hibited  slight  blushes  of  inflammation.     All  around  the  neck  it  wa» 
deeply  inflamed,  and  thence  the  reddening  spread  about  an  inch  intr? 
the  urethra.     The  peritoneum  also  exhibited  a  light  '.int. 


INVERSION  OF  THE  BLADDER— HERNIA.  135 

INVERSION    OF    THE    BLADDER. 

A  sow  littered  in  the  morning  and  brought  forth  ten  pigs  without 
any  apparent  difficulty,  and  immediately  afterwards  something  re- 
sembling the  bladder,  and  which  appeared  to  be  about  half  full, 
came  out.  The  owner  seeing  that  it  did  not  come  away,  became 
alarmed  and  sent  for  the  pig-butcher,  who  said  it  was  the  womb,  and 
that  it  must  be  put  back,  which  he  accordingly  endeavored  to  do, 
and  having  passed  two  or  three  stitches  of  small  twine  across  the 
labia  to  retain  the  parts,  left  the  animal.  Mr.  Neale,  V.  S.,  of  Bur- 
bage,  happening  to  hear  of  the  occurrence,  called  to  see  the  sow. 
He  found  the  vagina  considerably  protruded,  or  at  least  that  there 
was  a  protrusion  of  the  size  of  a  man's  fist,  and  in  a  sloughing  state, 
there.  She  appeared,  however,  in  good  condition,  got  up  without 
apparent  pain  or  difficulty,  and  was  suckling  her  young  well.  The 
urine  was  flowing  drop  by  drop.  As  the  owner  declined  having 
any  thing  done  to  her,  Mr.  Neale  ordered  the  parts  to  be  bathed 
with  a  decoction  of  bark.  Four  months  afterwards  she  was  killed 
for  bacon,  and  weighed  160  Ibs.  Upon  opening  her  the  uterus  was 
found  to  be  perfectly  healthy,  the  vagina  as  clean  as  possible,  and 
the  tumor  reduced  by  sloughing  to  the  size  of  a  lemon  ;  the  bladder 
was  completely  gone.  The  kidneys  were  full  of  white  purulent 
matter  of  about  the  consistence  of  cream.  The  uterus  led  directly 
from  the  kidneys  to  the  protruded  part,  at  the  inside  of  which,  and 
just  below  the  anus,  was  a  formation  of  matter  about  the  size  of  a 
hen's  egg.  There  was  not  the  slightest  trace  of  inflammation,  in 
any  of  the  surrounding  parts. 

,ji% 

PROTRUSION    OF    THE    RECTUM. 

,--..,..,  ,-:•-, -     .'-••'-.     'f-  -        -.-;      ••'-     •  •"r>r.-*J, 

This  is  an  evil  of  not  unfrequent  occurrence  in  swine,  arising 
chiefly  from  obstruction  of  the  intestines.  Where  the  cause  is 
simply  obstruction,  an  operation  will  remedy  it;  but  as  the  obstruc- 
tion is  too  frequently  attended  with  rupture  of  some  of  the  inteSr 
tines,  it  will  perhaps  be  as  well  to  have  the  animal  slaughtered  at 
once,  especially  if  it  is  in  tolerably  good  condition. 

•-•:,*...    .•    .«•    .  , "    ,  .-..'" r 

HERNIA. 

There  is  little  doubt  but  that  umbilical  and  congenital  hernia 
are  of  frequent  occurrence  among  swine ;  but  as  yet  the  attention 
devoted  to  the  diseases  of  these  animals  has  been  so  slight  thai 
we  dare  not  venture  positively  to  assert  the  fact. 


136  THE    HOG. 


CHAPTER  IX. 


The  Skin  and  itt  Diseases— Gangrenous  Erysipelas— Lice— Leprosy— Mange— lie aslcs—Dcs 
quamation  of  the  Skin. 

THE    SKIN. 

THE  skin  of  the  hog,  like  that  of  most  other  animals,  is  composed 
of  three  separate  parts  or  layers.  The  first  or  exterior  of  these  is 
the  cuticle  or  scarf  skin,  which  covers  the  whole  surface  of  the  body 
and  protects  the  more  sensitive  parts  from  the  injuries  which  might 
result  to  them  from  immediate  contact  with  external  agents.  It  is 
a  thin,  tough,  callous  texture,  perforated  with  innumerable  holes  or 
pores,  through  which  pass  the  hairs  and  bristles,  and  whence  exude 
those  transpirations  by  means  of  which  the  body  throws  off  all 
vapors  injurious  to  the  system.  Chemical  analysis  has  proved  it 
to  be  chiefly  composed  of  gelatine,  and  consequently  insoluble  in 
water  of  common  temperature.  This  layer  is  considerably  tougher 
and  denser  in  the  hog  and  other  of  the  pachydermata  than  it  is  in 
the  horse,  ox,  and  most  of  our  domesticated  animals. 

Beneath  this  is  the  rete  mucosum,  a  soft  expansion  of  tissue  which 
overspreads,  and  can  with  difficulty  be  separated  from  the  layer  below 
it.  Its  purpose  appears  to  be  to  protect  the  terminations  of  the 
blood-vessels  and  nerves  of  the  skin,  which  it  in  a  manner  envelops 
or  covers.  This  layer  determines  the  color  of  the  body  and  of  the 
hair. 

The  third  and  undermost  part  is  the  cutis  vera  or  true  skin,  an 
elastic  texture  composed  of  innumerable  minute  fibres  crossing  each 
other  in  all  directions,  fitting  closely  to  every  part  of  the  frame, 
yielding  by  its  elasticity  to  all  the  motions  of  the  body,  and  interpos- 
ing its  dense,  firm  structure  between  the  more  vital  parts  of  the 
system  and  external  injuries.  Innumerable  blood-vessels  and  nerves 
pass  through  it,  and  appear  upon  its  surface  in  the  form  of  papillae ; 
it  is  in  fact  far  more  sensitive  than  the  muscles  or  flesh. 

The  skin  varies  in  density  in  different  breeds  of  swine.  In  scmo 
of  the  large,  old  breeds  it  is  thick,  coarse,  tough,  and  almost  as  im- 
penetrable, in  comparison,  as  the  hide  of  a  rhinoceros;  while  in 
many  of  our  smaller  breeds,  and  particularly  in  those  which  have  a 
considerable  admixture  of  Asiatic  blood,  and  in  the  Chinese  pigs 
themselves,  it  is  soft,  fine,  and  delicate,  and  bears  no  slight  degree 
of  resemblance  to  the  skin  of  the  human  being.  It  is  not  to  be 
wondered  at,  that  a  structure  so  delicately  organised  as  the  one  we 
have  been  describing  should  be  subject  to  disease.  In  the  hog  it  is 
peculiarly  so  j  many  of  the  most  serious  maladies  to  which  he  is 


GANGRENOUS  ERYSIPELAS — LICE.  137 

subject,  have  their  seat  in  the  skin :  it  were  a  point  well  worthy  of 
study  to  inquire  into  the  reason  of  this  fact,  but  as  the  present  work 
is  devoted  to  practice  rather  than  theory,  we  must  leave  it  to  abler 
hands,  and  pass  onwards  to  a  consideration  of  some  of  the  most 
prevalent  diseases  of  the  skin  in  swine. 

GANGRENOUS   ERYSIPELAS. 

This  disease,  which  is  frequently  spoken  of  by  the  ancient  writers, 
as  prevailing  to  a  greater  or  less  extent,  and  often  almost  as  an  epi- 
demic among  sheep  and  swine,  is  now  of  rare  occurrence.  Poulet 
thus  describes  the  symptoms  : — 

"The  first  of  these,  which  last  some  five  or  six  days,  are  uneasi- 
ness, inquietude,  depression,  loss  of  appetite,  and  inertness.  About 
the  seventh  or  eighth  day  these  gradually  increase  in  intensity  ;  the 
limbs  totter,  the  body  is  alternately  hot  and  cold,  the  ears  droop 
and  are  cold,  the  head  appears  heavy,  the  tongue  is  discolored,  the 
breath  fetid,  a  thick  mucus  flows  from  the  nostrils,  and  the  whole  of 
the  skin  becomes  tinged  with  an  erysipelatous  redness,  which  is 
most  evident  under  the  belly ;  the  animal  utters  almost  incessant 
screams  of  pain.  This  inflammatory  state  of  the  integuments 
rapidly  merges  into  decided  gangrene,  and  the  whole  of  the  diseased 
surface  becomes  of  a  livid  blue  or  violet  hue.  The  skin  is  first 
covered  with  blisters  containing  a  thin  reddish  watery  fluid ;  and 
as  these  break,  the  gangrenous,  dark  colored  scabs  are  formed.  The 
disease  is,  however,  by  ro  means  of  so  fatal  a  character  in  swine,  as 
it  is  in  sheep,  probably  from  the  former  being  the  stronger  animals. 
A  little  blood  should  be  taken  from  the  ears,  once  at  any  rate,  and 
the  bleeding  should  be  repeated  if  it  appears  at  all  necessary.  A 
dose  or  two  of  Epsom  salts,  cooling  drinks  slightly  acidulated,  and 
strict  attention  to  diet  and  cleanliness,  are  generally  all  that  will  be 
requisite.  Should  the  skin  appear  to  be  very  irritable,  a  little  sweet  oil 
may  be  rubbed  over  it,  or  some  sulphur  made  into  a  kind  of  oint- 
ment with  sweet  oil  or  palm  oil ;  but  local  applications  are  not 
generally  requisite." 

Exposure  to  great  heat  t>r  cold,  or  any  sudden  transition  from 
one  extreme  of  temperature  to  another,  are  supposed  by  some 
authors  to  be  the  causes  of  this  disease ;  while  others,  and  we  think 
with  justice,  attribute  it  to  unwholesome  or  putrid  food,  and  to  gene- 
ral inattention  and  neglect. 

LICE. 

Pigs,  when  allowed  to  wallow  in  the  mire,  and  to  dwell  in  filthy 
styes,  are  very  apt  to  engender  these  disgusting  vermin,  which  eat 
into  the  skin  and  render  it  scabb;,  and  ulcerated,  and  by  the  irrita* 


188  THE  HOG. 


tion  they  keep  up,  worry  and  fatigue  the  animals,  and  effectually 
prevent  them  from  thriving.  Eric  Viborg  states  that  these  vermin 
sometimes  burrow  their  way  into  the,  flesh  and  come  out  through 
the  eyes,  nostrils,  or  mouth,  or  have  even  been  known  to  be  voided 
in  the  urine. 

The  first  step  to  be  taken  towards  effecting  a  cure  is  thoroughly 
to  cleanse  the  skin  from  every  particle  of  dirt,  and  to  clean  out  and 
whitewash  the  styes  and  put  in  fresh  dry  litter. 

Mercurial  ointment,  turpentine,  or  tobacco-water,  are  the  most 
efficient  agents  in  the  destruction  of  these  unwelcome  parasites.  A 
little  sulphur  or  Ethiop's  mineral  and  bay-salt  may  be  given  inter- 
nally. 

The  preventive  means  are  strict  attention  to  cleanliness  both  in 
the  styes  and  in  the  animals  themselves.  Whenever  a  pig  is  observed 
to  be  lousy,  which  will  quickly  be  perceived  by  his  rubbing  himself 
against  the  gates,  trees,  and  walls,  he  must  be  immediately  separated 
from  his  companions,  or  they  too  will  become  infested  with  lice,  if 
they  are  not  already  so. 

Parkinson  is  of  opinion  that  "  the  cause  of  vermin  infesting  ani- 
mals clearly  arises,  in  a  general  way,  from  bad  feeding,  which  occa- 
sions weakness  of  the  blood ;  for,"  says  he,  "  if  an  animal  be  ever 
so  lousy,  by  giving  him  strong  food  for  a  few  days  the  vermin  will 
disappear,  probably  because  the  rich  blood  is  poison  to  them."  He 
considers  that  a  free  access  to  water  for  bathing,  and  also  occasional 
exposure  to  heavy  rain,  is  not  only  necessary  to  the  general  health 
of  swine,  but  a  most  excellent  preservative  against  vermin. 


LEPROSY. 

This  disease  has  apparently  existed  in  swine  from  the  remotest 
periods,  and  Tacitus  gives  it  as  his  opinion  that  it  was  because  the 
hog  was  subject  to  leprosy  that  the  Jews  were  forbidden  to  eat  of 
its  flesh.  It  consists  in  the  development  of  certain  vesicles,  or  whit- 
ish granulations,  in  all  parts  and  portions  of  the  cellular  tissue ;  which 
vesicles  have  been  proved  to  be  neither  more  nor  less  than  a  species 
of  worms  termed  the  cysticercus  cellulosn,  supposed  by  some  French 
authors  to  be  of  the  same  species  as  that  found  in  the  brain  of  sheep. 
There  are  however  considerable  differences  between  these  two.  The 
cysticercus  is  found  in  all  the  cellular  tissues  and  soft  parts  through- 
out the  whole  of  the  body  ;  in  the  fat,  in  the  adipose  matter,  in  the 
interstices  between  the  muscles,  in  the  viscera,  and,  in  short,  in  every 
crevice  into  which  they  can  insert  themselves.  The  thigh  or  ham 
has  been  mentioned  by  some  authors  as  the  principal  seat  of  these 
vesicles,  but  they  are  also  found  on  the  shoulders,  around  the  jaws, 
along  the  neck  and  belly,  and  even  underneath  and  around  the  root 


LEPBOSY.  139 

of  the  tongue,  where  alone  can  an y  outward  lesions  indicative  of  lep- 
rosy be  in  general  discovered  ;  and  even  here  they  are  not  constant, 
out  are  chiefly  evident  in  those  animals  in  which  the  disease  has  at- 
tained to  a  great  height.  The  progress  of  leprosy  is  very  insidious, 
and  the  eaily  symptoms  so  little  marked  that  a  practised  eye  only 
can  detect  them. 

In  the  onset  all  that  is  observable  is  a  certain  marked  stupidity  or 
obstinacy  in  the  animal;  a  state  of  languor  and  apparent  general 
debility ;  an  evident  thickening  of  the  skin  ;  a  slight  adhesion  of  the 
bristles;  a  tendency  in  the  hair  to  fall  off,  caused  by  the  develop- 
ment of  a  greater  or  less  quantity  of  those  vesicles  of  which  we  have 
spoken,  as  being  scattered  in  different  parts  of  the  fatty  tissue,  either 
on  its  surface  or  in  the  interstices  of  the  muscles ;  under  the  coats 
of  the  viscera,  or  on  the  sides  of  the  tongue. 

In  its  successive  progress  this  disease  attacks  the  animal  economy 
more  or  less  profoundly  without  the  functions  appearing  otherwise 
troubled.  There  is  ulceration  of  the  cellular  tissue,  and  even  of  the 
organs  that  surround  or  penetrate  it :  the  animal  does  not  however 
appear  to  be  generally  and  seriously  ill.  Far  from  losing  his  appe- 
tite, he  is  occasionally  extremely  voracious.  He  does  not  appear  to 
suffer  in  the  lungs ;  his  breath  is  not  embarrassed,  nor  is  his  voice 
hoarser  than  usual. 

Such  is  at  least  what  may  be  observed  to  take  place  when  the  le- 
prous vesicles  are  not  numerous.  It  is  when  they  increase  in  quantity 
and  the  disease  increases  that  they  begin  to  affect  the  health  of  the 
patient.  He  then  becomes  indifferent  to  every  thing ;  moves  about 
slowly;  totters  as  he  walks;  his  eyes  are  dull;  the  buccal  mem- 
brane is  pale,  and  sometimes  strewed  with  violet  spots.  The  ex- 
pired air  is  fetid,  the  breathing  slow  ;  the  pulse  small  and  irregular, 
the  bristles  easily  plucked,  and  sometimes  a  little  blood  accompanies 
them.  Strength  begins  to  abandon  the  patient ;  he  can  no  longer 
sustain  himself  on  his  hind  legs;  the  posterior  part  of  the  trunk  be- 
comes paralyzed,  the  body  exhales  an  unpleasant  smell ;  the  skin  is 
thicker,  and  the  cellular  tissue  is  raised  in  different  parts,  especially 
about  the  kernals  of  the  neck.  There  is  swelling  about  the  roots  of 
the  hair,  which  often  proceeds  to  ulceration ;  the  skin  comes  off  in 
patches ;  large  tumors  are  developed  ;  the  teeth  are  ground  con 
vulsively  together  ;  the  tongue  is  dark  colored,  hot,  thickened,  and 
covered  with  slime  ;  the  body  swells ;  the  animal  utters  feeble  cries 
of  pain,  and  seldom  survives  many  hours. 

This  is  a  very  obstinate  disease,  probably  from  its  having  usually 
taken  so  great  a  hold  of  the  system  before  it  is  suspected,  and  nume- 
rous have  been  the  medicaments  recommended  for  it.  Antimony, 
sulphur,  small  and  repeated  doses  of  Epsom  salts,  and  general  bleed- 
ings, seem  to  be  the  course  of  treatment  most  likely  to  be  attended 
with  success ;  and  these  must  be  aided  by  strict  attention  to  diet 


140  THE   HOG. 

and  cleanliness ;  cooling  wholesome  food  alone  should  be  given,  and 
water,  in  which  barley-meal  has  been  dissolved.  Nothing  of  a  rich 
or  heating  nature  should  be  allowed  to  come  within  reach  of  the 
animal.  As  external  applications,  mercurial  ointment  may  be  mode- 
rately applied  to  the  ulcerated  parts,  or  the  common  mange  oint- 
ment composed  of  sulphur  and  antimony. 

In  all  probability  the  reason  why  this  and  many  other  diseases  of 
swine  have  hitherto  been  regarded  as  incurable,  is  that  men  of  science, 
educated  veterinarians,  have  as  yet  given  but  little  of  their  attention 
to  these  useful  animals,  and  deemed  the  study  of  their  diseases  and 
of  the  means  of  treating  them  beneath  their  notice.  Nor  is  the 
owner  without  his  share  of  blame,  for  he  too  often  either  abandons 
the  poor  brute  to  its  fate,  or  calls  in  the  aid  of  the  pig-butcher  or 
some  ignorant  empiric. 

There  have  been  numerous  opinions  advanced  relative  to  the  pre- 
disposing causes  of  leprosy  ;  some  authors  attribute  it  to  exposure 
to  the  inclemency  of  the  weather,  insufficient  food,  and  damp  marshy 
localities  ;  and  urge  in  support  of  their  opinion  that  the  disease  was 
much  more  prevalent  and  fatal  when  swine  were  turned  into  the 
woods  and  forests  during  certain  periods  of  the  year  to  seek  their 
own  food  than  it  is  now  when  they  are  comfortably  lodged  and  more 
care  devoted  to  their  feeding.  Others  have  attributed  it  to  some 
pernicious  qualities  in  the  water  which  the  animals  drink,  or  in  the 
food  which  is  given  to  them ;  and  with  both  these  parties  we  are  in- 
clined to  agree,  and  to  attribute  this  disease  in  a  great  measure  to 
vitiation  of  the  blood. 

The  wild  boar  appears  to  be  exempt  from  it;  nor  is  leprosy 
known  in  America,  Russia,  or  Spain,  if  we  may  believe  the  testi- 
mony of  various  authors  and  travellers. 

Some  have  asserted  it  to  be  hereditary  ;  but  there  are  numerous 
facts  on  record  in  which  some  of  the  progeny  of  a  perfectly  healthy 
boar  and  sow  have  proved  leprous,  while  a  diseased  sow  has  pro- 
duced sound  and  healthy  young. 

Another  question  has  likewise  been  much  discussed,  namely,  the 
propriety  or  safety  of  eating  the  flesh  of  pigs  that  have  died  of  this 
disease.  These  animals,  however  good  condition  they  may  appear 
to  be  in,  are  rather  bloated  than  fat ;  the  flesh  is  soft  and  flabby, 
and  tasteless,  and  will  not  keep;  the  bacon  pale  in  color  and  want- 
ing consistency.  Soup  made  with  such  flesh  is  white,  greasy,  and 
insipid,  and  has  been  known  to  produce  vomiting  and  diarrhoea.  We 
are  not  aware  that  there  are  any  records  of  disease  or  other  evil 
resulting  from  the  eating  of  the  flesh  of  leprous  pigs  ;  nevertheless 
it  stands  to  reason  that  it  cannot  be  wholesome,  and  should  not  be 
made  use  of,  for  although  no  immediate  ill  effects  may  follow  the 
eating  of  it,  we  cannot  tell  what  insidious  evils  such  vitiated  and 
diseased  food  may  engender  in  the  human  frame. 


MANGE.  141 


MANGE. 

This  cutaneous  affection,  which  was  formerly  attributed  to  want  of 
cleanliness,  or  to  some  peculiar  state  of  the  blood,  is  nov  generally 
admitted  to  arise  from  the  presence  of  certain  minute  insects  termed 
acari.  It  is  identical  with  the  scab  in  sheep,  and  the  itch  in  the  human 
being,  which  also  were  supposed  to  arise  from  corruption  of  the 
blocd,  or  acrid  humor  subsisting  in  it,  or  from  filthiness,  but  which 
arise  from  this  scabious  insect.  As  far  back  as  the  twelfth  century 
these  acari  scabiei  were  described  by  an  Arabian  physician ;  sub- 
sequently they  were  noticed  and  described  by  several  German  and 
Italian  writers,  and  in  1812  and  1814  Herr  Walz,  a  German  veteri- 
narian, and  M.  Gohier,  an  eminent  French  veterinary  surgeon,  found 
these  insects  in,  and  gave  drawings  of,  and  described  those  peculiar 
to,  almost  all  our  domesticated  animals. 

There  is  a  very  interesting  translation  from  a  pamphlet  by  Dr. 
Hertwig,  given  in  the  Veterinarian  for  1838,  in  which  a  detailed 
account  of  the  habits  and  history  of  these  insects  will  be  found. 

The  hog  does  not  appear  to  suffer  so  much  from  mange  or 
scab  as  the  horse,  sheep,  and  dog ;  in  swine,  the  pustules  are  usually 
chiefly  developed  under  the  arm-pits,  and  on  the  interior  of  the 
thighs.  They  at  first  consist  simply  of  red  spots,  vesicles,  or 
pimples  ;  but  these  gradually  become  connected  together  by  minute 
burrows,  or  furrows  existing  beneath  the  skin,  and  eventually  unite 
in  the  form  of  large  scabs,  which  the  animal,  irritated  by  the  itch- 
ing, rubs  into  large  blotchy  sores. 

Where  the  mange  is  recent,  a  tolerably  strong  decoction  of  tobacco 
or  digitalis  will  often  prove  an  efficacious  wash  for  the  diseased 
parts,  or  a  solution  of  corrosive  sublimate  ;  but  if  the  eruption  is  of 
long  standing,  and  has  degenerated  into  scabs,  a  solution  of  arsenic 
in  the  proportion  of  one  ounce  to  a  gallon  of  water,  or,  what  is  still 
better,  sulphur  and  mercurial  ointment  in  the  proportion  of  an 
ounce  of  the  former  to  a  drachm  of  the  latter,  carefully  and 
thoroughly  rubbed  into  the  skin,  must  be  resorted  to.  A  decoction 
of  soot  has  also  been  recently  discovered  by  an  eminent  French 
physician  to  be  exceedingly  efficacious  in  cases  of  cutaneous  disorders. 
Two  handfuls  of  soot  are  boiled  during  half  an  hour  in  a  pint  of 
water,  the  fluid  is  then  strained  off,  and  the  lotion  when  cold  used 
two  or  three  times  in  the  day.  Creosote  has  also  been  used  with 
success  in  the  treatment  of  cutaneous  eruptions.  If  the  animal  is  in 
high  condition,  blood  should  be  taken,  and  two  or  three  doses  of 
cooling  physic  given,  or  sulphur  mingled  with  the  food.  Strict 
attention  must  be  paid  to  cleanliness,  and  the  animal  kept  apart  from 
the  rest  of  the  herd.  Mange  is  both  hereditary  and  infectious. 
There  are  numerous  instances  of  its  having  been  communicated  from 


THE   HOG. 

one  animal  to  another  of  a  different  species,  and  even  to  the  human 
being. 

In  Austria,  if  mange  appears  in  the  hog  within  eight  days  after 
the  sale,  it  is  presumed  to  have  existed  at  the  time  of  the  said  sale, 
and  the  animal  is  returnable  to  the  vendor ;  and  when  it  can  be 
proved  that  he  was  aware  of  the  unsoundness,  he  not  only  has  to 
return  the  purchase-money,  but  also  to  indemnify  the  purchaser  for 
any  loss  or  inconvenience  he  may  have  sustained,  besides  paying  a 
fine  equal  to  one-tenth  of  the  value  of  the  animal. 

That  the  actual  disease,  namely,  the  scab  and  the  irritation,  arises 
from  the  presence  and  proceedings  of  the  acari,  there  can  be  no 
shadow  of  doubt ;  but  the  question  is,  whence  do  these  acari  arise  7 
Are  they  the  product  of  some  morbid  state  of  the  skin,  arising 
from  constitutional  derangement,  or  created  by  miasma  or  effluvia  ? 
We  find  mange  in  animals  that  are  fed  on  too  stimulating  food,  we 
also  find  it  in  others  that  are  neglected  and  badly  fed.  How  can 
these  contradictions  be  reconciled  ]  Here  is  a  vast  field  for  scientific 
research  and  experiment.  As  every  grain  of  earth,  and  every  drop 
of  water,  and  every  particle  of  air,  is  peopled  with  living  beings, 
developed  by  certain  causes,  it  is  by  no  means  an  improbable  theory 
to  suppose  that  the  germs  of  the  acari  may  exist  in  a  dormant  state 
in  the  skin,  and  only  be  called  into  actual  life  by  some  of  the  vitiating 
influences  which  neglect  or  mismanagement  produces,  and  once  ex- 
isting, they  follow  the  law  of  every  created  being,  and  propagate  and 
multiply,  and  pass  from  one  animal  to  another  either  by  actual  con- 
tact, or  by  the  intermediation  of  some  other  substance  which  both 
had  touched.  We  admit,  however,  that  this  is  mere  theory,  and  call 
upon  our  professional  brethren  to  aid  us  by  their  researches  in  our 
endeavors  to  discover  the  actual  truth. 


MEASLES. 

This  is  rather  a  sub-cutaneous  than  an  actual  disease  of  the  skin, 
consisting  in  a  multitude  of  small  watery  pustules  developed  be- 
tween the  fat  and  the  skin,  and  indeed  scattered  throughout  the 
cellular  tissue  and  adipose  matter.  It  has,  by  many,  been  regarded 
as  a  milder  form  of  leprosy ;  and  so  far  as  our  present  limited  know- 
ledge will  allow  us  to  judge,  this  supposition  appears  by  no  means 
an  erroneous  one. 

The  external  appearances  attending  it  are  the  development  of  red- 
dish patches,  somewhat  raised  above  the  surface  of  the  skin,  on  the 
groin,  the  arm-pits,  and  the  inside  of  the  thighs  at  first,  and  subse- 
quently on  other  parts  of  the  body.  The  attendant  symptoms  are 
acceleration  of  the  pulse,  heat  of  the  skin,  cough,  discharge  from  the 
nostrils,  loss  of  appetite,  nausea,  swelling  of  the  eyelids,  feebleness 


DESOUAMATION  OF  THE  SKIN.  143 

of  the  hinder  extremities,  and  the  formation  of  blackish  pustules 
under  the  tongue :  eventually  the  skin  usually  comes  off  in  patches. 
The  measles  in  swine  is  seldom  fatal,  and  will  gradually  yield  to 
the  simplest  cooling  treatment,  or  even  to  mere  attention  to  diet, 
temperature,  and  ventilation.  Didyinus  tells  us  that  Democrates 
prescribed  bruised  asphodile  roots  to  be  mingled  with  the  food  given 
to  hogs,  as  an  excellent  remedy  for  this  disease.  It  sadly  injures  the 
quality  of  the  meat,  rendering  it  insipid,  flabby,  pale,  and  indisposed 
to  take  the  salt.  We  should  say  that  the  flesh  of  measly  pigs  is  posi- 
tively unwholesome,  although,  perhaps,  there  are  no  cases  on  record 
in  which  it  is  proved  that  bad  effects  have  resulted  from  the  use  of  it. 
The  following  was  a  remedy  for  this  disorder  used  by  the  ancients  : 
*'A  hog  having  measles  must  be  put  in  a  sty  and  kept  there  three 
days  and  nights  without  food.  Then  take  five  or  six  apples,  pick 
out  the  cores  and  fill  up  the  holes  thus  made  with  flour  of  brimstone ; 
stop  up  the  holes  and  cast  in  the  apples  to  the  measly  hog.  Give 
him  first  one  or  two,  then  one  or  two  more,  and  then,  as  being  hun- 
gry he  will  eat  them,  give  him  all.  Let  him  have  nothing  more  to 
eat  until  the  next  day,  and  then  serve  him  so  again.  Thus  use  him 
for  five  or  six  days,  and  he  Avill  become  as  well  and  as  wholesome 
as  ever.1'  In  our  opinion  it  is  one  very  likely  to  be  beneficial. 

It  yet  remains  to  be  discovered  whether  measles  in  swine  is  an 
epidemic,  like  that  disorder  in  the  human  being,  or  whether  it  is 
hereditary,  or  whether,  as  many  suppose,  it  arises  from  the  develop- 
ment and  presence  of  a  variety  of  the  cysticercus. 
'".,"  T-:-^.     /.V-w     ••;»> 

DESQUAMATION    OF  THE    SKIN. 

The  following  singular  case,  communicated  to  The  Veterinarian, 
by  Mr.  J.  Sherwood,  of  Sittingbourn,  appears  to  us  not  unworthy 
of  record  here. 

"A  few  weeks  ago  the  skin  became  hard  on  either  side  about  nine 
or  ten  inches  from  the  spine,  and  afterwards  kept  gradually  separat- 
ing towards  the  centre  of  the  spine  from  the  shoulder  to  the  insertion 
of  the  tail.  The  bailiff  cut  off  portions  from  time  to  time  of  the 
weight  of  nearly  10  Ibs.  in  order  to  make  the  load  with  which  the 
animal  was  encumbered  the  lighter,  until  the  last  week,  when  the 
hog  lay  down,  and  after  taking  his  rest  with  his  brethren  (for  he  fed 
and  looked  as  well  as  the  rest,  with  the  exception  of  the  load  on  his 
back)  he  got  up  and  left  the  substance  behind  him.  It  consisted  of 
the  entire  skin  so  far  as  it  had  sloughed,  with  about  two  inches  of 
adeps  adhering  to  it  in  the  middle,  getting  gradually  thinner  towards 
the  sides,  and  weighing  20  Ibs.,  which,  added  to  the  portions  before 
removed,  made  a  total  of  30  Ibs.  The  hog  is  now  computed  to 
weigh  400  Ibs.  He  had  not  any  medicine  administered,  as  he  did 
well  the  whole  of  the  time." 


144  .  ,^_  THE  HOG. 

CHAPTER  X. 

Operation! — Bleeding— Castration— Catching  and  Holding— Drenching— Ringing, 
BLEEDING. 

THIS  is  a  most  useful  and  necessary  operation,  and  one  which  in 
many  diseases  is  of  vital  importance.  The  common  and  vulgar 
mode  of  getting  blood  from  the  pig  is  by  cutting  off  portions  of  the  ears 
or  tail ;  but  these  modes  of  proceeding  should  only  be  had  recourse 
to  when  local  and  instant  blood-letting  is  requisite.  The  jugular 
veins  of  swine  lie  too  deep  and  are  too  much  imbedded  in  fat  to  admit 
of  their  being  raised  by  any  ligature  about  the  neck  ;  it  is  therefore 
useless  to  attempt  to  puncture  them — we  should  only  be  striking  at 
random.  Those  veins,  however,  which  run  over  the  interior  surface 
of  the  ear,  and  especially  towards  its  outer  edge,  may  be  opened 
without  much  difficulty :  if  the  ear  is  turned  back  on  to  the  poll,  one 
or  more  of  them  may  easily  be  made  sufficiently  prominent  to  admit 
of  its  being  punctured  by  pressing  the  fingers  on  the  base  of  the  ear 
near  to  the  conch ;  when  the  necessary  quantity  of  blood  has  been 
obtained,  the  finger  may  be  raised  and  it  will  cease  to  flow. 

The  palate  veins  which  run  on  either  side  of  the  roof  of  the  mouth 
are  also  easily  opened  by  making  two  incisions,  one  on  each  side  of 
the  palate,  about  half  way  between  the  centre  of  the  roof  of  the 
mouth  and  the  teeth.  The  flow  of  blood  may  be  readily  stopped  by 
means  of  a  pledget  of  tow  and  a  string,  as  in  the  horse. 

M.  Gohier,  who  had  considerable  practice  in  bleeding  swine,  was 
of  opinion  that  the  cephalic  and  sephena  veins  might  be  opened 
without  any  great  exertion  of  skill  by  any  one  who  possessed  a  little 
knowledge  of  anatomy.  The  lancet  should  be  used  somewhat  ob- 
liquely, and  a  sufficient  quantity  of  blood  having  been  obtained,  the 
flow  arrested  in  the  usual  manner. 

Mr.  Cupiss  recommends  the  brachial  vein  of  the  fore-leg  (com- 
monly called  by  farriers  the  plate-vein)  as  a  favorable  place  for 
bleeding.  This  vein  runs  along  the  inner  side  of  the  fore-leg  under 
the  skin,  and  the  best  place  for  puncturing  it  is  about  an  inch  above 
the  knee,  and  scarcely  half  an  inch  backwards  from  the  radius.  No 
danger  need  be  apprehended  from  cutting  two  or  three  times  if  suf- 
ficient blood  cannot  be  obtained  at  once.  The  vein  will  become 
easily  discernible  if  a  ligature  is  tied  firmly  round  the  leg  just  below 
the  shoulder. 

Columella  tells  us  "to  let  blood  from  the  ear."  or  "  strike  a  vein 
beneath  the  tail  at  the  distance  of  two  inches  from  the  buttocks, 
where  it  attains  sufficient  size  for  the  purpose,  and  it  must  first  be 


CASTRATION.  145 

beaten  with  the  sprig  of  a  vine ;  then,  when  swelled  up  .iy  the 
stroke  of  this  rod,  opened  with  a  lancet,  and,  after  enough  blood 
has  been  drawn,  the  vein  must  be  bound  up  with  the  rind  of  the 
willow  or  elm- tree." 

This  operation  should  always  be  performed  with  the  lancet  if 
possible :  in  cases  of  urgent  haste,  when  no  lancet  is  at  hand,  a  small 
penknife  may  be  used ;  but  the  fleam  is  a  dangerous  and  objection- 
able instrument. 

CASTRATION  OR    SPAYING. 

This  operation  is  performed  on  many  of  our  domesticated  ani- 
mals, with  a  view  of  increasing  their  docility  and  usefulness,  and  on 
others  to  dispose  them  to  fatten  and  attain  to  early  maturity ;  it 
consists  in  removing  the  testicles  of  the  male,  and  the  ovaries,  and 
sometimes  a  more  or  less  considerable  portion  of  the  uterus,  of  the 
female. 

Pigs  are  chiefly  castrated  with  a  view  to  fattening  them ;  and 
doubtless  castration  has  the  required  effect,  and  therefore  is  less  ob- 
jectionable when  performed  on  the  pig,  than  when  the  horse  or  dog 
is  subjected  to  it ;  for  at  the  same  time  that  it  increases  the  quiescent 
qualities  of  the  animal,  it  diminishes  his  courage,  spirits,  and  nobler 
attributes,  and  even  affects  his  form.  The  tusks  of  a  castrated  boar 
never  grow  like  those  of  the  natural  animal,  but  always  have  a 
dwarfed,  stunted  appearance. 

If  possible,  this  operation  should  be  performed  in  the  spring  or 
autumn,  as  the  temperature  is  then  more  equable,  and  care  should 
be  taken  that  the  animal  is  in  perfect  health.  Those  which  are  fat 
and  plethoric  should  be  prepared  by  bleeding,  cooling  diet,  and  quiet. 
Pigs  are  castrated  at  all  ages,  from  a  fortnight  to  three,  six,  and 
eight  weeks,  and  even  four  months  old.  There  are  various  modes 
of  performing  the  operation :  we  will  begin  by  quoting  those  de- 
scribed by  Professor  Vatel : — Vatel's  Elements  de  Pathologic  Ve- 
terinaire. 

"Castration  by  simple  division  of  the  spermatic  cord. — If  the  pig 
is  not  more  than  six  weeks  old,  an  incision  is  made  at  the  bottom  of 
the  scrotum,  the  testicle  pushed  out,  and  the  cord  cut  without  any 
precautionary  means  whatever.  But  when  the  animal  is  older,  there 
is  reason  to  fear  that  hemorrhage  to  a  greater  or  less  extent  will 
supervene;  consequently  it  will  be  advisable  to  pass  a  ligature 
round  the  cord  a  little  above  the  spot  where  the  division  is  intended 
to  take  place. 

"Castration  by  tearing  the  cord. — Swine  are  thus  operated  on  by 
some  cutters : — An  assistant  holds  the  pig,  pressing  the  back  of  the 
animal  against  his  chest  and  belly,  keeping  the  head  elevated,  and 
grasping  all  the  four  legs  together  ;  or,  which  is  the  preferable  way. 


146  THE  HOG. 

one  assistant  holds  the  animal  against  his  cheat,  while  another  kneels 
down  and  secures  the  four  legs.  The  operator  then  grasps  the  scro- 
tum with  his  left  hand,  makes  one  horizontal  incision  across  the  base 
of  it,  opening  both  divisions  of  the  bag  at  the  same  time.  Then 
laying  down  his  knife,  he  presses  the  testicles  out  with  his  finger  and 
thumb,  grasps  them  between  his  teeth  and  tears  them  out.  He  then 
closes  the  wound  by  pressing  the  edges  gently  together  with  his 
fingers  ;  the  tearing  prevents  all  hemorrhage,  and  the  wound  speed- 
ily heals.  This  mode  of  operation  is  sometimes  performed  on  ani- 
mals two  and  three  years  old.  Some  break  the  spermatic  cord 
without  tearing  it :  they  twist  it,  and  then  pull  it  gently  and  firmly 
until  it  gives  way. 

"Castration  by  sawing  or  scraping. — Here  a  portion  of  the  base 
of  the  scrotum  is  cut  off,  the  testicles  forced  out,  and  the  cord  sawn 
through  by  a  somewhat  serrated  but  blunt  instrument.  The  he- 
morrhage, if  any  there  be,  is  arrested  by  introducing  ashes  into  the 
wound.  The  animal  is  then  dismissed,  and  nothing  further  done 
with  him.  Fromage  de  Feagre  has  castrated  many  pigs  of  three  or 
four  months  old  by  dividing  the  spermatic  cord  in  this  way.  This 
mode  of  operating,  however,  should  only  be  practised  on  very  young 
animals. 

"Castration  by  ligature. — Here  a  waxed  cord  Is  passed  as  tightly 
as  possible  round  the  scrotum  above  the  epididymes,  which  com- 
pletely stops  the  circulation,  and  in  a  few  days  the  scrotum  and  tes- 
ticles will  drop  off.  This  mode  of  operating  should  never  be  per- 
formed on  pigs  more  than  six  weeks  old,  and  the  spermatic  cord 
should  always  be  first  of  all  uncovered." 

We  cannot  approve  of  the  tearing  or  gnawing  the  testicle  with 
the  teeth;  it  is  a  disgusting  practice,  and  inflicts  unnecessary  pain 
on  the  patient :  the  use  of  a  blunt  knife  is  far  preferable,  as  thte  la- 
cerates the  part  equally  as  much  without  so  bruising  it  and  render 
ing  it  painful ;  and  it  is  the  laceration  only  we  require,  in  order  to 
prevent  the  subsequent  hemorrhage  which  would  occur  if  the  cord 
were  simply  severed  with  a  sharp  instrument. 

The  castration  by  ligature  requires  great  nicety  and  skill,  other- 
wise accidents  will  occur,  and  considerable  pain  and  inflammation 
be  caused.  Too  thick  a  cord,  a  knot  not  tied  sufficiently  tight,  or 
a  portion  of  the  testicle  included  in  the  ligature,  will  prevent  the 
success  of  the  operation. 

The  most  fatal  consequence  of  castration  is  tetanus,  i  iduced  by 
the  shock  communicated  to  the  nervous  system  by  the  torture  of 
the  operation. 

In  spaying  the  sow  the  animal  is  laid  upon  its  left  side  and 
firmly  held  by  one  or  two  assistants;  an  inc'sion  is  then  made 
into  the  flank,  the  fore-finger  of  the  right  hand  introduced  into  it, 
and  gently  turned  about  until  it  encounters  am  hooks  hold  of  the 


CATCHING  AND   HOLDING  THE  PIG.  147 

right  ovary,  vhich  it  draws  through  the  opening;  a  ligature  is  then 
passed  round  this  one,  and  the  left  ovary  felt  for  in  like  manner. 
The  operator  then  severs  off  these  two  ovaries,  either  by  cutting 
or  tearing,  and  returns  the  womb  and  its  appurtenances  to  their 
proper  position.  This  being  done,  he  closes  up  the  womb  with  two 
or  three  stitches,  sometimes  rubs  a  little  oil  over  it,  and  releases 
his  patient,  and  all  generally  goes  on  well ;  for  the  healing  power 
of  the  pig  is  very  great,  as  the  following  fact  will  testify. 

Mr.  Thomson,  veterinary  surgeon  at  Beith,  N.  B.,  was  castrating 
a  pig,  and  while  cutting  through  the  peritoneum,  one  of  the  assist- 
ants lost  his  hold,  and  the  animal  sprang  up.  The  scalpel  was 
plunged  deep  into  the  belly,  entered  one  of  the  convolutions  of  the 
ileum,  and  divided  one  of  the  guts  almost  through,  besides  making 
a  wound  in  the  mesentery.  Mr.  Thomson  sewed  up  the  mesentery 
with  a  fine  needle  and  thread,  and  restored  it  to  its  place,  and  se- 
cured the  side  with  firm  stitches — not,  however,  with  much  hope  of 
seeing  his  patient  recover.  But,  to  his  surprise,  two  days  afterwards 
little  appeared  to  be  the  matter,  and  in  a  short  time  the  animal  was 
well. 

The  after  treatment  is  very  simple.  The  animals  should  be  well 
littered  with  clean  litter,  in  styes  weather-tight  and  thoroughly  ven- 
tilated ;  their  diet  should  be  attended  to ;  sour  milk  or  whey,  with 
barley-meal,  is  an  excellent  thing  to  give  at  these  times ;  it  is  well 
to  confine  them  for  a  few  days,  as  they  should  be  prevented  from 
getting  into  cold  water  or  mud  until  the  wound  is  perfectly  healed, 
and  also  from  creeping  through  hedges  or  fences. 

The  best  age  for  spaying  a  sow  is  about  six  weeks ;  indeed,  as  a 
general  axiom,  the  younger  the  animal  is  castrated  the  better  it  gets 
over  the  operation,  which  is  seldom  attended  by  fatal  results.  Some 
persons,  however,  have  two  or  three  litters  from  their  sows  before 
they  operate  upon  them ;  where  this  is  the  case,  the  consequences 
are  more  to  be  feared,  as  the  parts  have  become  more  susceptible, 
and  are  consequently  more  liable  to  take  on  inflammation.  Lisle 
says : — "  Where  this  is  done,  it  is  best  to  spay  a  sow  two  or  three 
days  before  her  litter  of  pigs  are  weaned,  because  then,  if  harm 
follows  the  operation,  the  young  ones  will  draw  off  the  venom." 


CATCHING   AND    HOLDING    THE    PIG. 

Swine  are  very  difficult  animals  to  obtain  any  mastery  over,  or 
to  operate  on  or  examine.  Seldom  tame  or  easily  handled,  they 
are  at  such  periods  most  unmanageable,  kicking,  screaming,  and 
even  biting  fiercely.  Hurtrel  d'Arboval  recommends  the  following 
means  of  getting  hold  of  them : — "  Fasten  a  double  cord  to  the  end 
of  a  stick,  and  beneath  the  stick  let  there  be  a  running  noose  in  this 


148  THE  HOG 

cord  ;  tie  a  piece  of  bread  to  the  cord  and  present  it  to  the  anima,, 
and  when  he  opens  his  mouth  to  seize  the  bait,  catch  the  upper  jaw 
in  the  noose,  run  it  tight,  and  the  animal  is  fast." 

Another  means  is  to  catch  one  foot  in  a  running  noose  suspended 
from  some  place,  so  as  to  draw  the  imprisoned  foot  off  the  ground  ; 
or  to  envelop  the  head  of  the  animal  in  a  cloth  or  sack. 

But,  so  far  as  it  can  be,  all  coercion  should  be  avoided,  for  the 
pig  is  naturally  so  averse  to  being  handled,  that  in  his  struggles  he 
will  often  do  himself  far  more  mischief  than  the  disease  we  seek  to 
investigate  or  remedy  would  effect. 


DRENCHING. 

Here  again  the  observations  with  which  we  closed  the  preceding 
paragraph  are  applicable,  for  there  are  more  instances  than  one  on 
record  in  which  the  pig  has,  in  his  struggles,  ruptured  some  vessel 
and  died  on  the  spot,  or  so  injured  himself  as  to  bring  on  inflamma- 
tion and  subsequent  death.  Whenever  it  is  possible,  the  medicine 
should  be  mingled  with  a  portion  of  food,  and  the  animal  thus  cheated 
or  coaxed  into  taking  it.  Where  this  cannot  be  done,  the  following 
is  the  best  method : — 

Let  a  man  get  the  head  of  the  animal  firmly  between  his  knees, 
without,  however,  pinching  it,  while  another  secures  the  hinder  parts. 
Then  let  the  first  take  hold  of  the  pig's  head  from  below,  raise  it  a 
little,  and  incline  it  slightly  towards  the  right,  at  the  same  time 
separating  the  lips  on  the  left  side  so  as  to  form  a  hole  into  which 
the  fluid  may  be  gradually  poured,  not  more  being  introduced  into 
the  mouth  at  a  time  than  can  be  swallowed  at  once.  Should  the 
beast  snort  or  choke,  the  head  must  be  released  for  a  few  moments, 
or  he  will  be  in  danger  of  being  strangled. 

RINGING. 

The  operation  of  ringing  is  performed  in  order  to  counteract  the 
propensity  swine  have  to  dig  and  furrow  up  the  earth.  The  ring  is 
passed  through  what  appears  to  be  a  prolongation  of  the  septum, 
between  the  supplemental,  or  snout-bone,  and  the  proper  nasal.  The 
animal  is  thus  unable  to  obtain  sufficient  purchase  to  use  his  snout 
with  an/  effect  without  causing  the  ring  to  press  so  painfully  upon 
the  part  that  he  is  speedily  compelled  to  desist.  But  the  ring  is 
apt  to  break,  or  it  wears  out  in  process  of  time  and  has  to  be  re- 
placed. The  operation  is  most  painful,  and  the  shrill  squeaks  of  the 
animal  undergoing  it  cause  it  to  be  a  perfect  nuisance  to  the  neigh 
borhood. 

John  Lawrence   gives  the   following  directions  concerning   this 


BREEDING.  149 

operation :  "  The  snouts  of  pigs  should  be  perforated  at  weaning- 
time,  after  they  shall  have  recovered  from  castration ;  and  it  will  be 
necessary  to  renew  the  operation  as  they  become  of  large  growth. 
It  is  too  generally  neglected  at  first ;  but  no  pigs,  young  or  old, 
should  be  suffered  to  roam  at  large  unrung.  It  should  be  ascer- 
tained that  the  sow's  rings  are  sufficiently  strong  previously  to  her 
taking  the  hog,  on  account  of  the  risk  of  abortion  from  the  opera- 
tion being  renewed  while  she  is  in  pig.  Care  must  be  taken  by  the 
operator  that  he  go  not  too  close  to  the  bone,  and  that  the  ring 
turns  easily." 

The  far  better  mode  of  proceeding  is,  when  the  pig  is  young,  to 
cut  through  the  cartilaginous  and  ligamentous  prolongations  by 
which  the  supplementary  bone  is  united  to  the  proper  nasals.  The 
divided  edges  of  the  cartilage  will  never  unite  again,  and  the  snout 
always  remains  powerless. 


CHAPTER   XI. 

Breeding  :  Principles  of— Choice  of  the  Boar  and  Sow— Best  Breeds— Age  at  which  the  Sow 
may  be  used  for  Breeding — Proper  Age  for  the  Boar  to  commence  at — Period  of  Gestation— 
Fru'itfulness  of  Sows—Treatment  of  them  during  Pregnancy— Abortion  —  Parturition— 
Caesarean  Operation — Monstrosities — Treatment  of  the  Sows  while  Nursing — Treatment  of 
the  young  while  Sucking — Weaning  and  after  Treatment — Prolific  power  of  Swine. 

WE  now  approach  one  of  the  most  difficult  and  important  divi- 
sions of  our  subject — breeding. 

The  object  of  the  farmer  or  breeder  is  to  produce  and  retain  such 
an  animal  as  will  be  best  adapted  to  the  purpose  he  has  in  view,  be 
that  the  consumption  of  certain  matters  which  could  not  be  other- 
wise so  well  disposed  of;  the  converting  into  hams,  bacon  and  pork ; 
or  the  raising  of  sucking-pigs  and  porkers  for  the  market.  Almost 
all  farmers,  nay,  we  might  almost  say,  every  cottager  who  has  a  bit 
of  ground,  keep  one  or  more  pigs  to  devour  the  offal  and  refuse 
which  would  otherwise  be  wasted ;  and  the  farmer  finds  a  sufficiency 
for  their  keep,  while  the  cottager  begs  wash  and  other  matters,  or 
turns  the  beast  out  into  the  lanes  to  forage  for  himself.  But  this  is 
a  matter  totally  distinct  from  "  breeding  swine."  In  the  former 
case  the  animal  or  animals  are  purchased  young,  for  a  small  price 
(each  person  buying  as  many  as  he  considers  he  shall  have  food 
enough  for,)  and  then  sold  to  the  butcher  when  in  proper  condition 
to  be  killed ;  and  thus  a  certain  degree  of  profit  is  realised.  In  the 


150  THE  HOG. 

latter  many  contingencies  must  be  taken  into  calculation,  viz.,  the 
available  means  of  feeding  them;  whether  or  not  that  food  might 
be  more  profitably  disposed  of;  the  facilities  afforded  by  railways, 
by  the  vicinity  of  towns,  or  large  markets,  &c.  for  disposing  of  them. 
And  the  rapid  growth  of  railways  is  now  affording  these  facilities  to 
all  parts  of  the  United  Kingdom.  Formerly  the  inhabitants  of 
remote  localities  had  no  means  of  conveying  their  swine  to  a  favor- 
able market  except  the  tedious  one  of  driving  them,  or  the  expensive 
one  of  conveying  them  in  carts. 

Agricultural  writers  seem  to  be  very  much  divided  in  their  opi 
nion's  as  to  the  relative  advantages  of  breeding  or  buying,  but  all 
allow  that  the  keeping  of  swine  is  one  of  the  most  profitable  parts 
of  the  business  of  a  farm.  Whoever  determines  upon  breeding  must 
make  up  his  mind  in  the  first  place  what  is  the  shape  and  what  the 
qualities  he  wishes  to  obtain,  and  then  steadily  bear  this  in  mind  as 
he  pursues  his  object ;  not  with  wavering  caprice,  now  selecting  a 
cross  of  one  sort,  now  one  of  another,  but  adhering  to  a  system  well 
laid  down,  and  then  he  will  find  his  efforts  attended  with  success. 
The  great  desideratum  in  almost  all  establishments  is  an  animal  that 
will  grow  rapidly,  and  attain  to  the  earliest  maturity  and  greatest 
weight  in  the  shortest  period,  and  on  the  smallest  and  most  econo- 
mical amount  of  food. 

It  is  a  generally  admitted  fact  in  the  principles  of  breeding,  that 
the  offspring  usually  inherit  the  bodily  and  constitutional  qualities 
of  one  or  both  parents ;  and  in  swine  it  is  the  boar  whose  qualities 
chiefly  predominate  in  the  offspring ;  hence  it  will  be  necessary 
most  carefully  to  select  the  male  animal.  Thaer,  in  his  admirable 
work,  says: — 

CHOICE  OF  THE  BOAR  AND  SOW. 

"  In  the  breeding  of  swine,  a?  much  as  in  that  of  any  other  live 
stock,  it  is  important  to  pay  great  attention  not  only  to  the  breed, 
but  also  to  the  choice  of  individuals.  The  sow  should  produce  a 
great  number  of  young  ones,  and  she  must  be  well  fed  to  enable  her 
to  support  them.  Some  sows  bring  forth  ten,  twelve  or  even  fifteen 
pigs  at  a  birth,  but  eight  or  nine  is  the  usual  number,  and  sows 
which  produce  fewer  than  this  must  be  rejected.  It  is,  however, 
probable  that  fecundity  depends  also  on  the  boar ;  he  should  i>*ere- 
fore  be  chosen  from  a  race  which  multiplies  quickly. 

"  Good  one-year  bacon-hogs  being  much  in  request,  we  must  do 
all  we  can  to  obtain  a  breed  well  adapted  for  producing  them. 
Swine  of  such  a  breed  may  be  known  by  their  long  bodies,  low 
bellies,  and  short  legs.  Long  pendulous  ears  are  usually  coupled 
with  these  qualities,  and  attract  purchasers.  If,  however,  as  is  often 
advisable  in  large  dairies  and  cheese  factories,  hogs  are  to  be  sold  at 


BREEDING.  151 

all  seasons  to  the  butchers,  great  attention  must  be  paid  to  quickness 
of  growth  and  facility  of  gaining  flesh,  so  that  the  animals  may 
attain  their  full  growth  and  be  ready  for  killing  before  they  are  a 
year  old.  This  quality  is  particularly  prominent  in  the  Chinese 
and  African  breeds ;  but  among  our  ordinary  varieties,  hogs  are  often 
met  with  which  are  better  adapted  for  this  purpose  than  for  produc- 
ing large  quantities  of  bacon  and  lard. 

"  The  boar  should  be  selected  from  a  breed  Well  suited  to  these 
several  purposes ;  he  must  be  sound  and  free  from  hereditary  blem- 
ishes ;  and  should  be  kept  separate  from  the  sows  till  he  is  about  a 
year  old,  and  has  finished  his  growth,  or  he  will  begin  to  leap  too 
early.  He  is  usually  castrated  before  completing  his  third  year, 
otherwise  his  flesh  becomes  uneatable.  If,  however,  he  is  of  a  pecu- 
liarly excellent  breed,  one  which  cannot  be  easily  replaced,  his  flesh 
may  be  sacrificed  for  the  sake  of  preserving  him  for  breeding  from 
a  few  years  longer. 

"A  boar  left  on  the  pasture  at  liberty,  with  the  sows,  might 
suffice  for  thirty  or  forty  of  them  ;  but  as  he  is  usually  shut  up,  and 
allowed  to  leap  at  stated  times  only,  so  that  the  young  ones  may 
be  born  nearly  at  the  same  time,  it  is  usual  to  keep  one  boar  for 
ten  or  twelve  sows.  Full-grown  boars  being  often  savage,  and  diffi 
cult  to  tame,  and  attacking  men  and  animals,  must  be  deprived  of 
their  tusks. 

"  The  sow  must  be  chosen  from  a  breed  of  proper  size  and  shape, 
sound  and  free  from  blemishes  and  defects.  She  should  have  at 
least  twelve  teats ;  for  it  is  observed  that  each  pig  selects  a  teat  for 
himself  and  keeps  to  it,  so  that  a  pig  not  having  one  belonging  to 
him  would  be  starved.  A  good  sow  should  produce  a  great  number 
of  pigs,  all  of  equal  vigor.  She  must  be  very  careful  of  them,  and 
not  crush  them  by  her  weight ;  above  all,  she  must  not  be  addicted 
to  eating  the  after-birth,  and  what  may  often  follow,  her  own  young 
ones.  If  a  sow  is  tainted  with  these  bad  habits,  or  if  she  has  diffi- 
cult labors,  or  brings  forth  dead  pigs,  she  must  be  castrated  forth- 
with. It  is  therefore  proper  to  bring  up  several  young  sows  at  once, 
so  as  to  keep  those  only  which  are  free  from  defects.  Breeding  sows 
and  boars  should  never  be  raised  from  defective  animals." 

According  to  Varro  and  Columella,  the  ancients  considered  the  dis- 
tinguishing marks  of  a  good  boar  to  be — a  small  head,  short  legs,  a 
long  body,  large  thighs  and  neck,  and  this  latter  part  thickly  covered 
with  strong  erect  bristles. 

Our  most  experienced  breeders  prefer  an  animal  with  a  long  cylin- 
drical body,  small  bones,  well-developed  muscles,  a  wide  chest — 
which  denotes  strength  of  constitution,  a  broad  straight  back,  short 
head  and  fine  snout,  brilliant  eyes,  a  short  thick  neck,  broad  well- 
developed  shoulders,  a  loose  mellow  skin,  fine  bright  long  hair,  and 
few  bristles,  and  small  legs  and  hoofs.  Some  give  tie  preference  to 


152  THE   HOG. 

long  flapping  ears ;  this  is  the  case  especially  in  several  of  our 
western  counties,  but  experience  seems  to  demonstrate  that  those 
animals  are  best  which  have  short,  fine,  erect  ears.  The  boar  should 
always  be  vigorous  and  masculine  in  appearance. 

That  quaint  old  writer  Lisle  in  his  "  Husbandrie,"  gives  the  follow- 
ing advice  on  this  subject — advice  more  suited  to  swine  "  as  they 
were,"  than  to  the  improved  breeds  which  are  now  so  generally  re- 
placing the  heavy  old  races,  but  still  worthy  of  some  degree  of  at- 
tention : — 

• "  In  all  kinds  of  four-footed  beasts,  the  shape  and  form  of  the 
male  is  chosen  with  great  care,  because  the  progeny  is  frequently 
more  like  the  father  than  the  mother  ;  wherefore,  in  swine-cattle  also, 
certain  of  them  must  be  approved,  which  are  choice  and  singular  for 
the  largeness  of  their  whole  body,  and  such  as  are  rather  square 
(than  those  that  are  long  and  round),  with  a  hanging-down  belly, 
vast  buttocks,  but  not  so  long  legs  and  hoofs,  of  a  large  and  glandu- 
lous  neck,  with  short  snouts,  and  turned  upwards ;  and  especially, 
which  is  more  to  the  purpose,  the  males  must  be  exceedingly  sala- 
cious, and  such  as  are  proper  for  gendering  from  the  age  of  one  year 
till  they  come  to  their  fourth  year ;  nevertheless,  they  can  also  im- 
pregnate the  female  when  they  are  six  months  old.  Sows  of  the 
longest  size  and  make  are  approved,  provided  they  be,  in  the  rest  of 
their  members,  like  the  boars  which  have  been  already  described. 

"  If  the  country  is  cold,  and  liable  to  hoar-frost,  the  herd  must  be 
chosen  of  an  exceeding  hard,  thick,  and  black  bristle.  If  it  be 
temperate,  and  lie  exposed  to  the  sun,  the  cattle  that  is  smooth  and 
has  no  bristles,  or  even  that  which  is  white,  and  proper  for  the  mill 
and  the  bakehouse,  may  be  fed." 

But  although  the  chief  care  must  be  bestowed  on  the  selection  of 
the  male  animal,  we  must  not  be  led  to  imagine  that  the  female  may 
be  chosen  at  random.  One  of  good  form  and  breed,  free  from  con- 
stitutional defects,  and  from  disease  of  any  kind ;  not  addicted  to 
vice,  and  especially  not  to  feeding  on  flesh  or  carrion,  or  destroying 
rabbits,  or  poultry,  should  be  chosen.  Also  those  which  produce  the 
finest  and  most  numerous  progeny  should  be  kept  for  breeding,  es- 
pecially if  at  the  same  time  they  are  good  nurses ;  and  the  com- 
paratively barren  animals  spayed  and  fattened.  Sows  that  have 
very  low  bellies  almost  touching  the  ground,  seldom  produce  large 
or  fine  litters.  A  good-sized  sow  is  generally  considered  more  likely 
to  prove  a  good  breeder  and  nurse,  and  to  farrow  more  easily  and 
safely,  than  a  small  delicate  animal.  Few  of  our  domesticated 
animals  suffer  so  much  from  being  bred  in-and-in  as  swine.  Where 
this  system  is  pursued,  the  number  of  young  ones  is  decreased  at 
every  litter,  until  the  sows  become,  in  a  manner,  barren.  As  soon  as 
the  slightest  tendency  to  this  degeneracy  is  observed,  the  breed 
should  be  crossed  from  time  to  time,  keeping  sight,  however,  whhV 


BREEDING.  163 

so  doing,  of  the  aim  in  view.  The  Chinese  and  Siamese  pigs  will 
generally  be  found  to  be  the  best  which  can  be  used  for  this  purpose, 
as  a  single,  and  even  two  crosses,  with  one  of  these  animals,  will 
seldom  do  harm,  but  often  effect  considerable  improvement.'  The 
best  formed  of  the  progeny  resulting  from  this  cross  must  be 
selected  as  breeders,  and  with  them  the  old  original  stock  crossed 
back  again. 

"  Selection,  with  judicious  and  cautious  admixture,  is  the  true 
secret  of  forming  and  improving  the  breed,"  says  an  old  and  well- 
established  axiom  ;  and  so  it  is.  Repeated  and  indiscriminate  crosses 
are  as  injurious  as  an  obstinate  adherence  to  one  particular  breed, 
and  as  much  to  be  avoided ;  and  of  this  most  persons  seem  to  be 
fully  aware,  for  a  systematic  alteration  is  extending  itself  through- 
out all  our  English  breeds  of  swine  ;  the  large,  heavy,  coarse  breeds 
are  almost  extinct,  and  a  smaller  race  of  animals — more  apt  to  fatten, 
less  expensive  to  keep,  attaining  earlier  to  maturity,  and  furnishing 
a  far  more  delicious  and  delicate  meat — have  taken  their  place. 

It  would  be  useless  to  point  out  certain  breeds  as  being  the  most 
profitable  or  advantageous,  so  much  depends  upon  the  object  for 
which  the  animals  are  raised ;  and  besides,  each  breeder  of  any  ex- 
perience has  in  general  his  own  pet  stock  breed,  frequently  one  that 
has  been  "  made,"  if  we  may  be  allowed  the  expression,  by  himself 
or  his  progenitors.  This  will  be  found  to  be  the  casein  all  great  pig- 
breeding  localities,  and  it  frequently  happens  that  the  actual  stock 
from  which  some  of  the  present  choicest  races  of  swine  sprang  can- 
not be  traced  farther  back  than  some  ancestor  or  ancestress  cele- 
brated for  the  number  of  prizes  he  or  she,  or  their  immediate  descen- 
dants, have  won.  At  least  we  have  found  this  to  be  the  case  in 
almost  every  instance  in  which  we  have  endeavored  to  arrive  at  a 
knowledge  of  the  actual  parent  stock  of  some  of  the  most  perfect 
and  valuable  animals  we  have  met  with  or  heard  of.  The  Berk- 
shire, the  Improved  Essex,  and  the  New  Suffolk  and  Bedfordshire 
breeds  may,  however,  with  the  Chinese  and  Neapolitan,  be  instanced 
as  the  best  stocks  from  which  to  raise  a  small-boned,  thriving,  profit- 
able race,  adapted  for  almost  every  purpose. 

A  sow  is  capable  of  conceiving  at  the  age  of.  from  seven  to  ten 
months,  but  it  is  always  better  not  to  let  her  commence  breeding  too 
early,  as  it  tends  to  weaken  her  when  she  does.  From  ten  to  twelve 
months  old  will  be  about  the  best  age.  Thaer  says,  "  Sows  are  al- 
most always  in  heat  until  they  have  received  the  boar ;  this  state 
commences  even  as  early  as  at  the  age  of  four  or  five  months,  but 
they  are  usually  a  year  old  before  they  are  allowed  to  be  put  to  the 
boar." 

The  boar  should  be  at  least  a  twelvemonth  old  before  he  is  em- 
ployed for  the  purpose  of  propagating  his  species,  and  during  that 
time  should  have  been  well  and  regularly  fed  and  exercised.     On 
7* 


164:  THE  HOG. 

l>oar  may  be  allowed  to  serve  from  six  to  ten  sows,  but  on  no  account 
more.  The  best  plan  is  to  shut  up  the  boar  and  sow  in  a  sty  to- 
gether ;  for  when  turned  in  among  several  females,  he  is  apt  to 
"  ride"  them  so  often,  that  he  exhausts  himself  without  effect. 

The  period  of  gestation  averages  from  seventeen  to  twenty  tveeks, 
according  to  the  age,  constitution,  &c.,  of  the  mother ;  young  or 
weakly  sows  farrow  earlier  than  those  of  more  mature  age  or 
stronger  constitutions.  It  is  commonly  asserted  that  three  months, 
three  weeks,  and  three  days,  is  the  period  of  gestation ;  but,  from 
M.  Tessier's  observations  on  twenty-five  sows,  it  appears  that  it  va- 
ries from  109  to  123  days. 

A  good  breeding  sow  will  produce  two  if  not  three  litters  in  a 
year,  but  two  should  be  the  outside  number  ;  for  where  she  is  suf- 
fered to  have  more,  the  pigs  are  not  so  fine  or  so  many  in  number, 
nor  can  she  suckle  them  so  well.  How  many  years  they  would  con- 
tinue to  breed  is  scarcely  known,  as  it  is  generally  considered  to  be 
most  advantageous  to  spay  them  in  their  second,  or  at  any  rate  early 
in  their  third  year,  and  then  fatten  them  for  the  butcher,  especially 
where  there  is  always  a  stock  of  young  sows  to  replace  them  ;  for 
after  the  just-mentioned  period  the  litters  are  seldom  so  fine,  and  the 
animal  herself  deteriorates  in  value.  Some  breeders,  indeed,  only 
suffer  a  young  sow  to  have  one  litter,  and  then  immediately  spay 
and  fatten  her,  as  the  bacon  is  then  supposed  to  be  equally  as  good 
as  that  of  an  animal  spayed  in  the  very  onset.  This  is  mainly  a 
question  of  choice  or  economy.  An  agricultural  author  of  some  re- 
pute states  that  "  a  sow  is  fit  for  pigging  up  to  her  seventh  year,  and 
many  will  continue  to  be  so  even  longer.  The  more  prolific,  how- 
ever, the  animal  is,  the  sooner  does  she  grow  old  and  her  fruitfulness 
decay." 

But  they  doubtless  would  go  on  farrowing  for  many  years,  for 
there  are  instances  on  record  of  sows  that  have  produced  as  many 
as  eight  or  ten  pigs  at  a  litter  when  in  their  eighth  and  tenth  years. 
Selbourne,  in  his  "  Natural  History,"  gives  an  account  of  a  half-bred 
bantam  sow,  kept  by  a  friend  of  his,  more  from  curiosity  than  with 
any  view  to  profit,  "  who  was  as  thick  as  she  was  long,  and  whose 
belly  swept  on  the  ground,  till  she  was  advanced  to  her  seventeenth 
year ;  at  which  period  she  showed  some  tokens  of  age  by  the  decay 
of  her  teeth  and  the  decline  of  her  fertility. 

"  For  about  ten  years  this  prolific  mother  produced  two  litters  in 
the  year,  of  about  ten  at  a  time,  and  once  above  twenty  at  a  litter ; 
but,  as  there  were  near  double  the  number  of  pigs  to  that  of  teats, 
many  died.  From  long  experience  in  the  world,  this  female  was 
grown  very  sagacious  and  artful.  When  she  found  occasion  to  con- 
verse with  a  boar,  she  used  to  open  all  the  intervening  gates,  and 
march,  by  herself,  up  to  a  distant  farm  where  one  was  kept,  and, 
when  her  purpose  was  served,  would  return  by  "She  same  meana 


BREEDING.  155 

At  the  age  of  about  fifteen,  her  litters  began  to  be  reduced  to  four 
or  five;  and  such  a  litter  she  exhibited  when  in  her  fatting-pen.  She 
proved,  when  fat,  good  bacon,  juicy  and  tender ;  the  rind  or  sward 
was  remarkably  thin.  At  a  moderate  computation  she  was  allowed 
to  have  been  the  fruitful  parent  of  three  hundred  pigs— a  prodigious 
instance  of  fecundity  in  so  large  a  quadruped.  She  was  killed  in  the 
spring  of  1775." 

Although  we  should  by  no  means  advise  the  keeping  of  an  animal 
to  such  an  age,  still,  notwithstanding  that  it  is  the  fashion  or  custom 
to  do  otherwise,  we  would  advise  every  breeder  never  to  part  with 
a  sow  while  she  continues  to  bring  forth  a  numerous  and  fine  pro- 
geny, which  many  will  do  for  years,  and  to  be  a  good  nurse ;  and 
in  general  these  animals  become  better  nurses  the  oftener  they  far- 
row :  her  value  he  knows;  the  value  of  the  young  animal  that  he 
intends  should  succeed  her,  has  yet  to  be  tested ;  and  if  one  of  the 
two  must  be  fattened  for  the  butcher,  we  should  decidedly  recom- 
mend that  it  were  the  untried  one.  Varro  states  that  we  may  judge 
of  the  fruitfulness  of  a  sow  from  her  first  litter,  the  subsequent  ones 
being  generally  all  of  about  the  same  number. 

A  sow  that  brings  forth  less  than  eight  pigs  at  a  birth  the  third  or 
fourth  time  she  farrows  is  worth  little  as  a  breeder,  the  sooner  she 
is  fattened  the  better  ;  but  a  young  sow  that  produces  a  great  num- 
ber at  her  first  farrowing  cannot  be  too  highly  valued. 

Whenever  it  is  practicable,  it  should  always  be  so  arranged  that 
the  animals  shall  farrow  early  in  the  spring,  and  at  the  latter  end  of 
the  summer  or  quite  the  beginning  of  the  autumn.  In  the  former 
case  the  young  pigs  will  have  the  run  of  the  early  pastures,  which 
will  be  a  benefit  to  them  and  a  saving  to  their  owners ;  and  there 
will  also  be  more  whey,  milk,  and  other  dairy  produce  which  can  be 
spared  for  them  by  the  time  they  are  ready  to  be  weaned.  And  in 
the  second  case  there  will  be  sufficient  time  for  the  young  to  have 
grown  and  acquired  strength  before  the  cold  weather  comes  on, 
which  is  always  very  injurious  to  sucking  pigs. 

Martin  says :  "  None  of  the  pachydermata  are,  as  a  general  rule, 
remarkable  for  fertility.  The  elephant,  the  rhinoceros,  the  hippopo- 
tamus^ &c.,  appear  to  produce  only  a  single  offspring  at  a  birth,  and 
that  after  a  long  period  of  gestation ;  for  example,  the  gestation  of 
the  elephant  is  said  to  extend  to  twenty  months  and  eighteen  days. 
It  is  then  not  until  after  a  considerable  lapse  of  time  that  she  again 
becomes  pregnant,  and  she  produces  only  a  single  young  one.  The 
hog-like  peccaries  produce,  according  to  Azara,  only  two  at  a  birth. 
To  this  rule  the  swine  is  an  exception ;  it  may  be  that  the  wild  spe- 
cies are  less  prolific  than  the  ordinary  domestic  variety  of  the  genus 
sus,  yet  they  are  fertile,  but  in  the  ordinary  hog  this  fertility  is  at 
a  maximum.  Ordinarily,  a  healthy  sow  produces  eight,  ten,  of 
twelve  young  ones  twice  a  year.  The  period  of  gestation  is 


156  THE  HOG. 

what  variable :  Cuvier  says,  "  quatre  mois ;"  others  give  it  as  tnrea 
months,  three  weeks,  and  three  days  ;  that  is.  108  days.  According 
to  Mr.  Tossier,  out  of  fifteen  sows,  one  littered  in  109  days,  and  one  in 
123  days,  the  latitude  being  fourteen  days ;  according  to  others,  the 
range  of  gestation  extends  from  seventeen  weeks,  or  119  days,  to 
twenty  weeks,  or  140  days.  According  to  Desmarest,  the  wild 
sow  goes  with  young  four  months  and  a  few  days,  and  produces  from 
three  to  nine  at  a  birth,  suckling  them  from  three  to  four  months. 
It  would  appear,  then,  from  these  observations,  that  the  period  of 
gestation  in  the  domestic  sow  varies  according  to  age,  constitution, 
food,  and  the  peculiarities  or  idiosyncrasies  of  the  peculiar  breed. 
Young  and  weakly  sows  not  only  produce  fewer  pigs,  but  farrow  ear 
lier  than  those  of  more  mature  age  and  sounder  constitution ;  and 
moreover,  as  might  be  expected,  their  offspring  are  deficient  in  vigor, 
often  indeed  puny  and  feeble.  Here,  having  trenched  upon  the  sub- 
ject, we  may  advert  to  the  principles  upon  which  the  breeding  of 
swine  should  be  conducted.  Two  great  objects  are  in  view,  fertility 
and  early  fattening.  With  respect  to  fertility,  we  rather  advocate 
moderation  than  excess,  both  on  account  of  the  strength  and 
health  of  the  mother,  and  the  improvement  of  her  progeny  from 
a  full  supply  of  nutriment.  How  long  a  sow  should  be  kept  for 
breeding  depends  on  circumstances ;  generally  speaking,  however, 
after  three  or  four  years  the  most  fruitful  sows,  exhausted  in  their 
reproductive  energies,  evince  a  great  falling  off  both  in  the  number 
and  vigor  of  their  young.  There  are,  however,  exceptions,  .  .  . 
.  'I  .  .  Generally  speaking,  it  is  most  advantageous  to  allow  the 
sow  to  breed  only  two  or  three  .years,  and  her  successors  being  ready, 
to  fatten  her  off  for  the  knife. 

"A  leading  principle  in  breeding  this  animal, — and  it  applies  equally 
to  the  horse,  the  sheep,  the  ox,  the  dog, — is  to  make  a  cautious  selec- 
tion of  the  male  by  whom  the  female  is  destined  to  conceive  her 
first  progeny,  for  that  male  stamps  a  character  upon  every  subse- 
quent produce  (whether  for  good  or  bad)  by  other  males ;  '  the  sub- 
sequent progeny  of  the  mother  will  always  partake  more  or  less  of 
the  character  of  the  father  of  the  first  offspring.'  This  law  is  mys- 
terious, but  it  has  been  abundantly  proved  (See  Giles,  in  Philoso- 
phical Transactions  for  1821,)  and  need  not  be  here  further  insisted 
on  ;  the  fact  is  established."  The  selection  of  the  male,  then,  is  of 
primary  importance ;  of  whatever  breed  he  may  be,  he  should  be 
as  perfect  as  possible  in  the  good  qualities  of  his  race ;  he  should  be 
free  from  all  blemishes,  and  be,  moreover,  the  offspring  of  parents 
in  all  points  unexceptionable.  A  young  boar  intended  for  breeding 
from,  should  be  kept  separate  from  the  sows  until  about  a  year  old, 
when  his  physical  energies  will  be  fairly  developed.  Forrc  is  of 
more  importance  than  size;  in  this  latter  respect  the  breeds  differ, 
as  they  do  also  in  the  size  of  the  ears,  which  in  some  breeds  are 


BREEDING.  157 

flapping,  especially  in  those  which  incline  to  the  old  stocK.  Good 
pigs,  it  is  true,  may  show  such  ears,  but  small  sharp  erect  ears 
accompany  what  may  be  called  blood.  In  a  well-formed  boar  the 
barrels  should  be  rather  long  and  cylindrical,  the  limbs  should  be 
small  in  the  bone,  the  hoofs  neat  and  compact,  the  skin  should  be 
rather  loose  and  mellow,  with  the  bristles  fine  but  scanty  ;  the  snout 
should  be  short  and  sharp,  the  forehead  rise  boldly  between  the  ears 
and  merge  into  an  arched  neck ;  the  back  should  be  straight  and 
broad  ;  the  hams  rounded  and  ample ;  the  chest  should  be  wide,  indi 
cative  of  the  amplitude  and  vigor  of  the  vital  organs.  The  tail 
should  be  slender,  the  eyes  should  be  lively,  the  temper  or  disposi- 
tion cheerful,  without  moroseness.  As  to  color,  some  breeds  are 
black,  others  are  white  ;  but  we  think  black  pigs  are  thinner  in  the 
skin,  and  are  moreover  less  subject  to  cutaneous  affections. 

"  Equal  care  should  be  taken  in  the  selection  of  a  breeding  sow  as 
of  a  boar ;  she  should  be  of  good  stature  and  form,  sound,  healthy, 
and  free  from  defects ;  she  should  have  twelve  teats  at  least ;  for,  as 
may  be  observed,  each  little  pig  selects  its  own  teat,  and  keeps  to  it, 
so  that  a  pig  not  having  one  belonging  to  it  would  in  all  probability 
be  starved.  A  sow  not  pregnant,  whose  belly  hangs  low,  almost 
touching  the  ground,  seldom  produces  large  litters  or  fine  pigs  ;  the 
pendulous  condition  of  the  abdomen  is  the  result  of  weakness  and 
relaxation  from  ill-feeding  and  ill-breeding,  neglect,  with  other  causes, 
and  is  generally  accompanied  with  flat  sides,  a  long  snout,  and  a 
raw-boned,  unthrifty  carcass,  yielding  coarse  meat,  which  will  not 
repay  the  outlay  of  feeding. 

"  Early  breeding  not  only  weakens  the  sow,  but,  as  her  physical 
powers  are  not  yet  fully  developed,  results  in  the  production  of  un- 
dersized weakly  pigs,  and  perhaps  incomplete  as  to  number ;  and 
these,  perhaps,  she  will  scarcely  be  able  to  nourish.  A  young  sow 
of  good  stock,  who  produces  a  large  litter  at  her  first  parturition  of 
pigs,  all  of  equal  size,  and  proves  a  good  nurse,  is  valuable ;  she 
promises  well,  for  her  first  litter  may  be  taken  as  an  example  of 
those  to  succeed.  As  long  as  such  a  sow  continues  to  return  to  the 
breeder  such  litters  twice  a  year,  he  will  do  well  to  keep  her,  more* 
especially,  if  he  finds  upon  trial  that  her  progeny  fatten  kindly, 
whether  as  porkers  or  bacon  hogs.  Some  persons,  after  obtaining 
one  or  two  litters  from  a  sow,  have  her  spayed,  and  then  fattened 
off  as  quickly  as  possible  for  bacon.  Some  keep  to  their  second  or 
even  third  year  of  breeding ;  but  if  the  last  litter  was  good,  and  the 
sow  continues  vigorous,  it  becomes  a  question  how  far  it  may  not 
be  more  advantageous  to  keep  her  still  longer,  even  until  the  dimi- 
nished number  of  pigs  produced  indicates  a  decline  in  fruitful  ness. 

"Cold  sleety  weather,  with  keen  winds,  is  very  detrimental  to  young 
pigs,  and  not  favorable  to  their  mother;  hence,  early  in  the  spring, 
and  late  in  the  summer  or  early  in  the  autumn,  are  the  best  periods 


158  THE    HOG. 

of  the  year  for  the  production  of  the  litter.  In  the  spring,  the  fields 
and  paddocks  offer  fresh  grass  and  various  vegetables,  and  a  run  upon 
the  pastures  will  be  not  only  a  saving  to  the  farmer,  but  of  benefit 
to  the  young  pigs ;  besides  which,  at  this  season  of  the  year,  whey 
and  buttermilk  are  abundant,  and  so  continue  to  be  during  the  greater 
part  of  summer.  An  autumnal  litter,  again,  will  have  sufficient 
time  to  grow  and  acquire  strength  before  the  severities  of  mid- 
winter ;  besides,  the  refuse  of  the  potato  crop,  and  the  carrot  beds, 
of  the  garden  generally,  and  of  the  mill,  is  now  at  hand  in  abun- 
dance. 

"A  breeding  sow  should  never  be  overfed ;  not  that  she  should  be 
starved — on  the  contrary,  she  should  be  kept  by  a  judicious  allow- 
ance of  food,  in  good  condition  and  perfect  health,  but  not  fat.  A 
sow  when  fat  is  not  likely  to  be  fertile,  and,  moreover,  her  parturi- 
tion is  sure  to  be  more  difficult  and  dangerous,  and  her  milk  in 
insufficient  quantity,  perhaps  even  of  inferior  quality,  while  her  un- 
wieldiness  renders  her  more  liable  to  overlay  her  young.  When 
with  pig  she  should  have  a  commodious  and  clean  sty  to  herself,  and 
be  supplied  with  sufficient  straw  to  render  her  comfortable.  She 
should  be  sufficiently  fed,  and  all  her  wants  supplied.  All  sources 
of  irritation  or  annoyance  should  be  avoided,  and  especially  as  the 
time  of  parturition  approaches.  From  these  causes — sometimes, 
perhaps,  from  craving  hunger— a  sow  will  devour  her  young ;  it  is 
said  also,  that  if  she  be  allowed  to  devour  the  after-birth,  a  morbid 
appetite,  leading  her  to  fall  upon  her  litter,  will  be  engendered.  For 
these  reasons  the  sow  should  be  carefully  watched  and  fed,  especially 
if  the  parturition  be  her  first ;  and  not  for  these  reasons  only,  but 
lest  her  parturition  should  prove  dangerous  or  in  any  way  difficult. 

"  On  no  account  should  two  pregnant  sows  be  placed  in  one  sty, 
however  commodious.  They  will  assault  each  other,  and  at  last, 
perhaps,  destroy  each  other's  young. 

"' Selection,  with  judicious  and  cautious  admixture,  is  the  true 
secret  of  forming  a  breed.'  It  is  thus  that  all  our  improved  breeds 
of  domestic  animals  have  been  produced,  those  of  the  hog  not  ex- 
eepted.  Hence  the  old,  coarse,  large-boned  swine  have  now  almost 
disappeared,  and  given  place  to  small-boned  breeds,  apt  to  fatten, 
mature  at  an  earlier  age,  affording  more  delicate  meat,  less  expensive 
to  keep,  and,  therefore,  altogether  more  profitable  breeds.  Such 
are  rapidly  extending  themselves,  and  improvements  are  going  on. 
Many  landed  proprietors  pride  themselves  on  the  possession  of  a 
particular  breed  of  their  own  establishment,  and  remarkable  for 
good  qualities  of  every  kind.  In  the  establishment  of  such  a  stock, 
indiscriminate  selection,  and  a  repetition  of  crosses,  with  no  definite 
object,  must  be  avoided ;  while,  at  the  same  time,  a  pertinacious 
adherence  to  the  plan  of  breeding  in  and  in  from  the  same  stock, 
however  excellent,  will-  ultimately  result  in  its  degeneracy.  Com 


BREEDING.  159 

paratively  speaking,  it  is  only  within  a  few  years  that  the  improved 
breeds  of  pigs  have  risen  up  to  reward  the  skill  of  the  breeder.  The 
Chinese  or  Siamese,  the  Neapolitan,  and  the  African  varieties  have 
greatly  contributed  to  their  creation,  and  continue  to  modify  those 
in  which  a  farther  cross  is  desirable.  After  one  or  two  crosses^  the 
best  progeny  is  generally  selected  to  inter-breed  again  with  the  ori- 
ginal stock,  and  thus  is  its  improvement  effected.  Among  the  nu- 
merous admirable  breeds  which  now  exist,  it  would  be  difficult  to 
say  which  has  the  superiority,  or  which  it  is  most  profitable  and 
advantageous  to  rear.  As  in  the  case  of  cattle  and  sheep,  much 
depends  on  contingent  circumstance!?,  on  locality,  and  the  kind  of 
food  most  readily  obtainable.  No  doubt  each  breeder  prefers  his 
own  strain.  Berkshire  and  Essex  boast  of  their  respective  races ; 
Yorkshire,  Suffolk,  Sussex,  and  Bedfordshire  put  in  their  claims  for 
praise." 

"  The  following  rules  for  the  selection  of  the  best  stock  of  hogs 
will  apply  to  all  breeds : — 

"Fertility. — The  strain  from  which  the  farmer  or  breeder  selects 
ought  to  be  noted  for  fertility.  In  a  breeding  sow  this  quality  is 
essential,  and  it  is  one  which  is  inherited.  The  same  observation 
applies  to  other  domestic  animals.  But  besides  this,  she  should  be 
a  careful  mother,  and  with  a  sufficient  number  of  dugs  for  a  family 
of  twelve  at  a  single  litter.  A  young  untried  sow  will  generally 
display  in  her  tendencies  those  which  have  predominated  in  the  race 
from  which  she  has  descended,  and  the  number  of  teats  can  be 
counted.  Both  boar  and  sow  should  be  sound,  healthy,  and  in  fair 
but  not  over  fat  condition,  and  the  former  should  be  from,  a  stock  in 
which  fertility  is  a  characteristic. 

"  Form. — It  may  be  that  the  farmer  has  a  breed  which  he  wishes  to 
perpetuate  ;  it  is  highly  improved,  and  he  sees  no  reason  for  imme- 
diate crossing.  But,  on  the  other  hand,  he  may  have  an  excellent 
breed,  with  certain  defects,  as  too  long  in  the  limb,  or  too  heavy  in 
the  bone.  Here,  we  should  say,  the  sire  to  be  chosen,  whether 
of  a  pure  or  cross  breed,  should  exhibit  the  opposite  qualities,  evert 
to  an  extreme,  and  be,  withal,  one  of  a  strain  noted  for  early  and 
rapid  fattening. 

"  But  what  is  meant  by  /orm,  as  applied  to  a  pig  ?  A  development 
of  those  points  connected  with  the  profit  of  the  owner.  In  these 
points  high  or  low  blood  is  demonstrated.  The  head  should  be  small, 
high  at  the  forehead,  short  and  sharp  in  the  snout,  with  eyes  ani 
mated  and  lively,  and  thin,  sharp,  upright  ears ;  the  jowl,  or  cheek, 
should  be  deep  and  full ;  the  neck  should  be  thick  and  deep,  arch 
gracefully  from  the  back  of  the  head,  and  merge  gradually  into  a 
broad  breast ;  the  shoulders  should  be  set  well  apart  at  the  clavicu« 
lar  joint;  the  body  should  be  deep,  round,  well-barrelled,  with  an 
ample  chest,  broad  loins,  and  a  straight,  flat,  broad  back ;  the  tail 


160  THE  HOG. 

should  be  slender ;  the  hams  should  be  round,  full  and  well  deve- 
loped ;  the  limbs,  fine-boned,  with  clean  small  joints ;  and  with  small 
compact  hoofs,  set  closely  together,  with  a  straight  bearing  upon  the 
ground.  If  in  perfect  health,  young  store  hogs,  or  young  stock  se- 
lected for  breeding,  will  be  lively,  animated,  hold  up  the  head,  and 
move  freely  and  nimbly. 

"Bristles. — These  should  be  fine  and  scanty,  so  as  to  show  the  skin 
smooth  and  glossy  ;  coarse,  wiry,  rough  bristles  usually  accompany 
heavy  bones,  large  spreading  hoofs,  and  flapping  ears,  and  thus  be- 
come one  of  the  indications  of  a  thick  skinned  and  low  breed. 

"  Color. — Different  breeds  of  high  excellence  have  their  own  co- 
lors :  white,  black,  parti-coloured,  black  and  white,  sandy,  mottled 
with  large  marks  of  black,  are  the  most  prevalent.  A- black  skin, 
with  short  scanty  bristles,  and  small  stature,  demonstrate  the  preva- 
lence of  the  Neapolitan  strain,  or  the  black  Chinese,  or  perhaps  an 
admixture  of  both.  Many  prefer  white ;  and  in  sucking  pigs  des- 
tined for  the  table,  and  for  porkers,  this  color  has  its  advantages, 
and  the  skin  looks  more  attractive ;  nevertheless,  we  think  that  the 
skin  of  black  hogs  is  in  general  thinner  than  that  of  white  hogs,  and 
less  subject  to  eruptive  diseases." — MARTIN. 


TREATMENT  OF  SOWS  DURING  PREGNANCY. 

Sows  with  pig  should  be  well  and  judiciously  fed  ;  that  is  to  say, 
they  should  have  a  sufficiency  of  wholesome  nutritious  food  to  main- 
tain their  strength  and  keep  them  in  good  condition,  but  should  by 
no  means  be  allowed  to  get  fat,  as  when  they  are  in  high  condition 
the  dangers  of  parturition  are  enhanced,  the  animal  is  more  awkward 
and  liable  to  smother  or  crush  her  young,  and  besides,  never  has  as 
much  or  as  good  milk  as  a  leaner  sow.  She  should  also  have  a 
separate  sty :  for  swine  are  prone  to  lie  so  close  together,  that  if  she 
were  amongst  others  her  young  would  be  in  great  danger ;  and  this 
sty  should  be  perfectly  clean  and  comfortably  littered,  but  not  so 
thickly  as  to  admit  of  the  young  being  able  to  bury  themselves  in 
the  straw. 

As  the  time  of  her  farrowing  approaches  she  should  be  well  sup- 
plied with  food,  especially  if  she  be  a  young  sow,  and  this  is  her 
first  litter,  and  also  carefully  watched  in  order  to  prevent  her  from 
devouring  the  after-birth,  and  thus  engendering  a  morbid  appetite 
which  will  next  lead  her  to  fall  upon  her  own  young.  A  sow  that 
has  once  done  this  is  never  afterwards  to  be  depended  upon.  Hunger, 
thirst,  or  irritation  of  any  kind,  will  often  induce  this  unnatural  con- 
duct ;  and  this  is  another  reason  why  a  sow  about  to  farrow  should 
have  a  sty  to  herself,  and  be  carefully  attended  to,  and  have  all  her 
wants  supplied. 


ABORTION  161 


ABORTION. 


This  accident  is  by  no  means  of  so  common  occurrence  in  the  sow 
as  in  many  of  our  other  domesticated  animals.  There  are  various 
causes  which  will  tend  to  produce  it ;  insufficiency  of  food,  eating 
too  much  succulent  vegetable  food,  or  unwholesome  unsubstantial 
diet ;  blows  and  falls  will  also  induce  it ;  and  one  very  prevalent 
cause  arises  from  this  animal's  habit  of  rubbing  itself  against  hard 
bodies  in  order  to  allay  the  irritation  produced  by  the  vermin  or  cu- 
taneous eruptions  to  which  swine  are  subject. 

Reiterated  copulation  does  not  appear  to  produce  abortion  in  the 
sow,  at  least  to  the  extent  it  does  in  other  animals. 

The  symptoms  indicative  of  approaching  abortion  are  similar  to 
those  of  parturition,  only  more  intense.  There  is  generally  rest- 
lessness, irritation,  and  shivcrings :  and  the  cries  of  the  animal  tes- 
tify the  presence  of  severe  labor-pains.  Sometimes  the  rectum, 
vagina,  or  uterus  becomes  relaxed,  and  one  or  the  other  protrudes, 
and  often  becomes  inverted  at  the  moment  of  the  expulsion  of  the 
foetus,  preceded  by  the  placenta,  which  presents  itself  foremost. 

Nothing  can  be  done  to  prevent  abortion  at  the  last  hour ;  all 
that  we  can  do  is,  from  the  first  to  remove  every  predisposing  cause. 
The  treatment  will  depend  upon  circumstances.  Where  the  animal 
is  young,  vigorous,  and  in  high  condition,  bleeding  will  be  beneficial, 
not  a  copious  blood-letting,  but  small  quantities  taken  at  different 
times  ;  purgatives  may  also  be  administered.  If,  when  abortion  haa 
taken  place,  the  whole  of  the  litter  are  not  born,  emollient  injections 
may  be  resorted  to  with  considerable  benefit ;  otherwise  the  after 
treatment  should  be  much  the  same  as  in  parturition,  and  the  ani- 
mal should  be  kept  warm,  and  quiet,  and  clean,  and  allowed  a  cer 
tain  degree  of  liberty. 

Whenever  one  sow  has  aborted,  the  breeder  should  immediately 
look  about  for  the  causes  likely  to- have  induced  this  accident,  and 
endeavor,  by  removing  them,  to  secure  the  rest  of  the  inhabitants 
of  his  piggery  from  a  similar  fate. 

In  cases  of  abortion,  the  foetus  is  seldom  born  alive,  and  often  has 
been  dead  for  some  days ;  where  this  is  the  case — and  whether  it  is 
so  or  not  will  be  easily  detected  by  a  peculiarly  unpleasant  putrid 
exhalation,  and  the  discharge  of  a  fetid  liquid  from  the  vagina — the 
parts  should  be  washed  with  a  diluted  solution  of  chloride  of  lime, 
in  the  proportions  of  one  part  chloride  to  three  parts  water,  and  a 
portion  of  this  lotion  may  be  gently  injected  into  the  uterus  if  the 
animal  will  submit  to  the  doing  so.  Mild  doses  of  Epsom  salts, 
tincture  of  gentian,  and  ginger  will  also  act  beneficially  in  such 
cases,  and  with  attentior  to  diet,  soon  restore  the  animal. 


162  THE  HOG. 

PARTURITION. 

The  approach  of  the  period  of  farrowing  is  marked  by  the  im- 
mense size  of  the  belly,  by  a  depression  of  the  back,  and  by  the 
distension  of  the  teats.  The  animal  gives  evident  symptoms  of  acute 
suffering,  and  wanders  restlessly  about,  collecting  straw,  and  carry 
ing  it  to  her  sty,  grunting  piteously  the  while. 

As  soon  as  this  is  observed,  she  should  be  enticed  into  a  separate 
sty  and  carefully  watched.  On  no  account  should  several  sows  be 
permitted  to  farrow  in  the  same  place,  as  they  will  inevitably  irritate 
each  other,  and  devour  their  own  or  one  another's  young. 

The  young  ones  should  be  taken  away  as  soon  as  they  are 
born,  and  deposited  in  a  warm  spot,  for  the  sow  being  a  clumsy  ani- 
mal, is  not  unlikely,  in  her  struggles,  to  overlay  them ;  nor  should 
they  be  returned  to  her  until  all  is  over,  and  the  afterbirth  has  been 
removed,  which  should  always  be  done  the  moment  it  passes  from 
her ;  for  young  sows,  especially,  will  invariably  devour  the  after- 
birth if  permitted,  and  then,  the  young  being  wet  with  a  similar 
fluid  and  smelling  the  same,  will  eat  them  one  after  another.  Some 
persons  advise  washing  the  backs  of  the  young  pigs  with  a  decoction 
of  aloes,  colocynth,  or  some  other  nauseous  substance,  as  a  remedy 
for  this ;  but  the  simplest  and  easiest  one  is  to  remove  the  little 
ones  until  all  is  over  and  the  mother  begins  to  recover  herself  and 
seeks  about  for  them,  on  which  they  should  be  put  near  her. 

It  has  been  frequently  observed  that  each  little  pig  has  its  own 
peculiar  teat,  and  will  not  willingly  suck  from  any  other  ;  therefore, 
as  the  front  teats  yield  most  milk,  the  smallest  pigs  should  be 
placed  to  them.  If  more  young  are  farrowed  than  the  mother  has 
teats,  the  most  weakly-looking  must  be  destroyed,  unless  it  should 
so  happen  that  there  is  another  sow  at  hand  which  has  fewer  pigs 
than  teats,  in  which  case  they  may  be  put  to  her,  if  this  can  be  done 
without  her  knowledge;  though  some  writers  affirm  that  a  sow  will 
give  her  teats  indifferently  to  her  own  offspring  or  to  that  of  a 
stranger. 

It  does  not,  however,  always  happen  that  the  parturition  is  effect- 
ed with  such  ease.  Cases  of  false  presentation,  of  enlarged  foetus, 
of  debility  in  the  mother,  often  render  it  difficult  and  dangerous. 
The  womb  will  occasionally  become  protruded  and  inverted  in 
consequence  of  the  forcing  pains  of  difficult  parturition,  and  even 
the  bladder  has  been  known  to  come  away.  These  parts  must  be 
returned  as  soon  as  may  be  ;  and  if  the  womb  has  come  in  contact 
with  the  dung  or  litter  and  acquired  any  dirt,  it  must  be  first  wash- 
ed in  hike-warm  water,  and  then  returned  and  confined  in  its  place 
by  means  of  a  suture  passed  through  the  lips  of  the  orifice.  Some 
foreign  veterinarians  place  a  pessary  high  up  the  vagina,  and  secure 
it  in  its  situation  by  means  of  an  iron  ring  or  wire ;  but  this  is  a 


PARTURITION.  163 

complicated  operation,  and  could  not  be  performed  without  great 
difficulty  on  so  obstinate  an  animal.  The  easiest  and  perhaps  the 
best  way  is  not  to  return  the  protruded  parts  at  all,  but  merely 
tie  a  ligature  around  them  and  leave  them  to  slough  off,  which  they 
will  do  in  the  course  of  a  few  days,  without  effusion  of  blood  or 
further  injury  to  the  animal.  No  sow  that  has  once  suffered  from 
protrusion  of  the  womb  should  be  allowed  to  breed  again. 

Mr.  Ramsden,  of  Ripon,  gives  the  following  account  of  a  case  of 
difficult  parturition  : — 

"About  the  middle  of  August,  1840,  I  was  called  in  and  request- 
ed to  assist  a  sow  that  was  in  labor,  could  not  rise,  and  seemed  to 
be  in  great  suffering.  I  relieved  her  of  one,  gave  her  some  gruel, 
and  hoped  that  she  would  be  able  to  effect  the  parturition  of  the 
remaining  ones  without  aid. 

"  On  my  return  she  was  perfectly  senseless.  The  young  pig  was 
endeavoring  to  suck.  The  parturition  had  not  in  the  least  degree 
advanced.  I  pressed  with  my  left  hand  over  the  diaphragm,  which 
recalled  in  a  slight  degree  the  pains,  and  empounded  my  right  hand 
gradually.  I  then  drew  out  a  second  pig;  it  lay  about  four 
inches  anterior  to  the  pelvis.  The  stupor  of  the  mother  was  a  little 
removed,  and  at  length  I  got  the  whole  litter  of  ten  pigs,  and  also 
the  placental  membrane.  This  was  the  first  case  of  the  kind  that 
ever  came  under  my  notice." — The  Veterinarian,  vol.  xiv. 

Another  and  still  more  interesting  case  is  given  by  Mr.  Cart w right, 
veterinary  surgeon  : — 

"On  the  llth  of  July,  1839,1  was  requested  to  attend  a  sow,  the 
property  of  a  farmer  near  this  town.  The  poor  animal  had  been  in 
labor  six  days.  During  the  last  three  days  she  was  not  able  to 
stand,  nor  had  she  taken  any  food,  and  her  death  was  expected  every 
hour.  She  was  a  very  fat  animal,  and  the  owner  informed  me  that 
she  was  about  ten  days  past  her  time  of  pigging,  and  that  he  was 
confident  the  pigs  were  dead.  I  was  of  the  same  opinion ;  and, 
after  a  minute  examination,  felt  confident  that  nothing  short  of 
the  Caesarean  operation  could  save  her ;  at  the  same  time  informing 
the  owner  that  she  might  die  in  consequence  of,  01;  during,  the 
operation. 

"  The  operation  was  consented  to ;  and  I  proceeded  first  to  secure 
her  legs,  and  to  have  them  firmly  extended  their  full  length,  and 
retained  there  by  assistants.  I  next  placed  a  bundle  of  straw  under- 
neath her,  which  gave  the  belly  a  round  and  prominent  position, 
rendering  it  more  tense  and  firm,  and  at  the  same  time  giving  me 
considerable  advantage  in  operating. 

"  My  first  proceeding  was  to  clear  away  the  hair  in  the  direction 
of  my  intended  incision,  in  which  I,  at  the  onset,  had  made  up  my 
mind  to  follow  the  theory  taught  in  operative  surgery,  viz.  always 
to  make  the  incisions  in  the  same  direction  as  the  muscular  fibres. 


164  THE  HOG. 

and,  above  all,  never  to  sever  a  muscle  if  it  could  be  avoided.  The 
hair  being  removed,  I  was  about  to  make  the  incisions  lengthways, 
in  the  course  of  the  linea  alba,  when  it  suddenly  occurred  to  ma 
that  I  should  not,  in  this  case,  be  able  to  keep  the  lips  of  the  wound 
approximated  by  sutures  or  bandages,  on  account  of  the  depending 
state  of  the  abdomen  and  its  contents.  I  therefore  determined  to 
make  the  incisions  more  on  the  side,  and  across  the  oblique  externus 
abdominis.  I  accordingly  cut  freely  through  the  integuments  foi 
about  eight  inches  in  length,  which  I  accomplished  with  a  common 
scalpel.  Next  I  penetrated  through  the  adipose  or  fatty  matter 
underneath,  of  which  there  was  no  lack ;  and  then  cut  down  on  the 
muscle,  at  the  superior  part  of  the  incision,  quite  through,  and  expos- 
ing the  peritoneum.  I  now  introduced  my  forefingers  as  directors, 
and  with  the  curved  bistoury  laid  the  abdomen  freely  open. 

"  The  lips  of  the  incision  or  wound  of  course  receded  from  each 
other  to  a  great  distance,  and  a  slight  arterial  hemorrhage  ensued, 
which  I  thought  proceeded  from  the  circumflex  artery  of  the  ileum. 
If  the  incision  had  been  made  longitudinally,  this  might  have  been 
prevented,  but  as  the  hemorrhage  soon  ceased,  it  was  of  little  con- 
sequence. The  intestines  were  much  inflated  with  gas,  and  protruded 
as  far  as  the  wound  of  the  peritoneum  extended. 

"  I  now  introduced  my  right  hand,  and  distinctly  felt  the  situation 
of  the  uterus,  when  the  animal  made  a  desperate  struggle,  and  some 
of  the  small  intestines  escaped.  I  found  it  necessary  for  an  assist- 
ant to  introduce  his  hand,  to  prevent  a  repetition  of  this.  The 
bladder  was  distended  with  urine,  which  proved  somewhat  trouble- 
some, and  I  had  no  catheter  at  hand.  I  was  now  about  to  make  a 
second  attempt  to  open  the  uterus,  when  I  accidently  felt  the  pulsa- 
tion of  a  large  artery.  Had  I  divided  the  uterus  in  the  same 
direction  as  the  incision  in  the  abdomen  I  should  have  cut  the  artery. 
Was  it  the  uterine  or  vaginal  artery  1  I  placed  my  hand  inferior  to 
the  vessel,  and  felt  a  young  one.  Next,  with  a  scalpel  in  my  right 
hand,  guarded  at  the  point  with  my  forefinger,  fearing  that  the  sow 
might  struggle  and  the  instrument  wound  some  of  the  intestines,  I 
cut  through  the  uterus,  introduced  my  finger  guarding  the  scalpel, 
and  effected  an  opening  into  it  about  six  inches  in  length.  I  then 
introduced  my  hand,  laid  hold  of  one  of  the  foetal  pigs,  and  drew  it 
out.  In  this  way  I  proceeded  until  I  removed  the  whole  number, 
which  amounted  to  seven. 

"The  operation  being  thus  far  completed,  her  legs  were  drawn 
towards  each  other,  which  brought  the  lips  of  the  wound  into  approxi 
mation,  and  I  retained  them  there  by  strong  adhesive  plasters,  over 
which  I  placed  a  roller  passing  three  times  round  her  body.  I  now 
proceeded  to  examine  my  patient :  she  was,  as  might  be  expected, 
in  a  very  weak  state ;  and  when  her  head  was  raised,  it  fell  again 
ipon  my  hand  as  if  she  wis  dead.  As  she  lay  in  this  exhausted 


PARTURITION.  165 

state,  not  a  muscle  except  the  involuntary  ones  moving,  I  gave  hex 
a  little  brandy  and  water,  and  then  closed  the  door  and  left  her. 
The  general  opinion  of  the  by-standers  was,  that  in  a  few  minutes 
she  would  be  dead :  this  was  about  4  P.  M.  Indispensable  business 
prevented  me  from  seeing  her  until  10  o'clock,  when  I  was  glad  to 
find  my  patient  somewhat  revived.  I  gave  more  brandy  and  beef- 
tea,  and  left  her  for  the  night. 

"At  6  A.  M.  there  was  a  decided  improvement ;  the  extremities 
were  warm,  the  respiration  tranquil,  with  an  occasional  grunt  and 
pricking  or  moving  of  the  ears  ;  some  fseces  had  passed  during  the 
night.  I  doubted  whether  the  bladder  had  been  emptied,  and  there- 
fore introduced  a  small  catheter  which  I  use  for  sheep,  &c.,  and  took 
away  a  great  quantity  of  water.  I  ordered  more  weak  brandy  and 
water  and  broth. 

"At  6  p.  M.  the  symptoms  were  improving,  excepting  that  the 
side  surrounding  the  incision  was  a  little  swelled ;  I  therefore 
ordered  fomentations  to  be  applied,  using  hot  cloths,  with  but  little 
water. 

"  18th. — Doing  well ;  the  secretions  regular ;  and  she  for  the  first 
time  voluntarily  took  a  little  milk,  with  a  drachm  of  brandy,  of 
which  she  appeared  fond.  From  this  time  she  continued  to  improve 
iaily  ;  and  on  the  fifth  day  from  the  operation  she  was  able  to  stand, 
ind  fed  well.  The  roller  round  her  body  was  not  removed  for  a 
month,  and  the  plaster  remained  for  nearly  three  months.  When  it 
came  away  the  wound  was  beautifully  healed.  This  animal  has 
attracted  considerable  attention  in  the  neighborhood,  and  she  is  now 
as  fat  as  she  can  be,  and  a  fine  specimen  of  the  short-eared  breed." 

MONSTROSITIES. 

Monstrosities  are  often  farrowed  by  swine.  It  would  be  difficult 
to  assign  any  cause  for  this,  did  we  admit,  with  most  persons,  that 
these  are  peculiarly  stupid  and  unimaginative  animals ;  but  as  in 
Chapter  III.  we  have  already  declared  our  opinion  to  be  a  contrary 
one,  the  inexplicability  of  the  matter  is  done  away  with. 

Mr.  Ellis,  V.  S.,  of  Liverpool,  gives  an  account  of  six  sows  belong 
,ing  to  one  person  which  all  produced  blind  young  ones,  the  greater 
part  of  which  were  without  the  least  semblance  of  an  eye,  the  orbif 
being  quite  empty.  Some  of  them  had  four  ears  each.  Only  four 
out  of  the  whole  lot  lived ;  they  were  either  brought  forth  dead  or 
died  immediately  after  birth. 

One  of  the  sows  could  not  farrow  any  of  her  young  ones,  they 
being  three  times  the  proper  size,  and  in  a  state  of  decomposition. 
The  Csesarean  operation  was  therefore  performed,  as  the  only  means 
of  saving  her ;  but  it  had  been  delayed  too  long ;  she  only  lived 
three  hours  after  it. 


166  THE  HOG. 

These  pigs  were  all  got  by  one  boar,  but  the  sows  were  of  differ, 
ent  breeds. 

TREATMENT    OF    THE    SOWS    WHILE    SUCKLING. 

More  depends  upon  this  than  many  persons  seem  to  have  the  least 
idea  of,  both  as  regards  the  mother  and  the  young ;  and  many  a  fine 
sow  and  promising  litter  have  been  ruined  for  want  of  proper  and 
judicious  care  at  this  period. 

Immediately  after  farrowing,  many  sows  are  apt  to  be  feverish ; 
where  this  is  the  case,  a  light  and  sparing  diet  only  should  be  given 
them  for  the  first  day  or  two,  as  gruel,  oatmeal-porridge,  whey,  and 
such-like.  Others,  again,  are  very  much  debilitated,  and  require 
strengthening ;  for  them  strong  soup,  bread  steeped  in  wine  or  in  a 
mixture  of  brandy  and  sweet  spirits  of  nitre,  administered  in  small 
quantities,  will  often  prove  highly  beneficial. 

Gradually  the  rations  must  be  increased  and  given  more  fre- 
quently ;  and  they  must  be  composed  of  wholesome,  nutritious,  and 
succulent  matters.  All  kinds  of  roots — carrots,  turnips,  potatoes, 
and  beet-root — well  steamed  or  boiled,  may  be  given,  but  never  raw ; 
bran,  barley  and  oatmeal,  bean-flower,  Indian  corn,  whey,  sour,  skim, 
and  butter-milk,  all  are  perfectly  well  adapted  for  this  period  ;  and, 
should  the  animal  appear  to  require  it,  grain  well  bruised  and  mace- 
rated may  also  be  added.  Bean-flour  is  considered  by  many  persons 
to  create  an  abundance  of  milk ;  and  there  are  many  who  deem 
barleymeal  too  stimulating,  and  advise  that  it  should  never  be  used 
alone,  but  always  one-third  oatmeal  to  two-thirds  of  the  barleymeal. 
Whenever  it  is  possible,  the  sow  should  be  turned  out  for  an  hour 
each  day,  to  graze  in  a  meadow  or  clover-field,  as  the  fresh  air  and 
exercise  and  herbage,  will  do  her  an  infinity  of  good.  The  young 
pigs  must  be  shut  up  for  the  first  ten  days  or  a  fortnight,  after  which 
they  will  be  old  enough  to  follow  her  and  take  their  share  of  the 
benefit. 

The  rations  should  be  given  regularly  at  certain  hours ;  small  and 
often-repeated  meals  are  far  preferable  to  large  ones,  for  indiges- 
tion or  any  disarrangement  of  the  functions  of  the  stomach  vitiates 
the  milk,  and  produces  diarrhoea  and  other  similar  affections  in  the 
young. 

The  mother  should  always  be  well,  but  not  over-fed  ;  the  better 
and  more  carefully  she  is  fed,  the  more  abundant  and  nutritious  will 
her  milk  be,  the  better  will  the  sucking-pigs  thrive,  and  the  less  will 
she  be  pulled  down  by  suckling  them. 

When  a  sow  is  weakly,  and  has  not  a  sufficiency  of  milk,  the 
young  pigs  must  be  taught  to  feed  as  early  as  possible.  A  kind  of 
gruel,  made  with  skim-milk  and  bran,  or  oatmeal,  will  be  the  best 
thing  for  this  purpose ;  or  a  soup  composed  of  potatoes,  boiled,  and 


TREATMENT  WHILE  SUCKLING.  167 

then  mashed  in  milk  or  whey,  with  or  without  the  addition  cf  a  little 
bran  or  oatmeal. 

Towards  the  period  when  the  pigs  are  to  be  weaned  the  sow  must 
be  less  plentifully  fed,  otherwise  the  secretion  of  milk  will  be  as 
great  as  ever  ;  and  it  will  accumulate,  and  there  will  be  hardness,  and 
perhaps  inflammation  of  the  teats.  Should  it  appear  requisite,  a 
dose  of  physic  may  be  given  to  assist  in  carrying  off  the  milk ;  but 
in  general  a  little  judicious  management  in  the  feeding  and  weaning 
will  be  all  that  is  requisite. 

Martin  says  :  "  From  some  ill-understood  cause,  several  domestic 
animals,  as  the  rabbit,  and  sometimes  the  cat,  seem  to  forget  all  in- 
stinctive  ties,  and  turning  upon  their  offspring,  ravenously  and  unna- 
turally devour  them.  This  is  not  unfrequently  the  case  with  the 
sow ;  and  it  is  remarkable,  that  when  this  revolting  act  has  been 
once  committed,  its  re-occurrence  may  be  expected.  This  disposi- 
tion is  not  always  or  necessarily  connected  with  general  ferocity, 
nor  even  with  the  fierce  anxiety  which  the  sow,  with  other  ani- 
mals, displays  in  the  protection  of  her  young ;  it  may  be  that  the 
animal  is  ordinarily  mild  and  gentle,  and  yet  at  this  juncture  becomes 
madly  ferocious.  We  are  not  aware  whether  or  not  such  tragic 
scenes  take  place  among  animals  in  a  state  of  natural  independence ; 
most  probably  they  never  do,  or  but  very  rarely.  Yet  in  early 
ages  the  sow  was  evidently  subject  to  this  morbid  propensity  ;  for 
among  the  regulations  respecting  swine,  laid  down  by  Hoel  Dha, 
one  of  the  good  qualities  of  a  sow  expressly  noticed  is,  that  she 
do  not  devour  her  young  ones.  The  less  the  sow,  after  bringing 
forth  her  young,  is  meddled  with,  the  more  comfortable  her  bed- 
ding, the  more  regularly  and  gently  she  has  been  previously  man- 
aged and  treated,  the  less  likely  is  she  to  violate  one  of  the  great 
laws  of  nature. 

"  The  wild  boar,  as  we  have  said,  is  a  dangerous  animal ;  and  so 
indeed,  to  a  certain  extent,  is  the  domestic  boar  of  some  of  the 
larger  breeds.  Instances  are  not  unfrequent  of  boars  turning  furi- 
ously upon  their  keepers,  especially  if  interfered  with  when  in  com- 
pany with  the  female,  or  if  constrained  to  quit  her  society. 

"  It  is  not,  however,  only  at  certain  times  and  under  certain  circum- 
stances that  the  boar  is  dangerous :  a  boar,  especially  one  of  the 
large  old  breeds,  is  by  no  means  a  safe  animal  to  venture  near  at  any 
time,  and  we  have  more  than  once  seen  sows  almost  equally  savage; 
this,  however,  is  not  generally  the  case." 

TREATMENT    OF    THE    YOUNG    WHILE    SUCKING. 

For  the  first  ten  days  or  a  fortnight,  the  mother  will  generally  be 
able  to  support  her  litter  without  assistance,  unless,  as  has  been 
already  observed,  she  is  weakly,  or  they  are  too  many  in  number ; 


168  THE   HOG. 

in  either  of  which  cases  they  must  be  fed  from  the  first.  When  tho 
young  pigs  are  about  a  fortnight  old,  warm  milk  should  be  given  to 
them.  In  another  week,  this  may  be  thickened  with  some  species 
of  farina  ;  and  afterwards,  as  they  gain  strength  and  increase  in  size, 
boiled  roots  and  vegetables  may  be  added.  As  soon  as  they  begin 
to  eat,  an  open  frame  or  railing  should  be  placed  in  the  sty,  under 
which  the  little  pigs  can  run,  and  on  the  other  side  of  this  should 
be  the  small. troughs  containing  their  food;  for  it  never  answers*  to 
let  them  eat  out  of  the  same  trough  with  the  mother,  both  because 
the  food  set  before  her  is  generally  too  strong  and  stimulating  for 
them,  and  besides,  the  chances  are  they  would  not  get  a  mouthful. 
Those  intended  to  be  killed  for  "  sucking-pigs"  should  not  be  above, 
four  weeks  old ;  most  persons  kill  them  for  this  purpose  on  the 
twenty-first  or  twenty-second  day.  The  others,  excepting  those 
which  are  kept  for  the  purpose  of  breeding,  should  be  castrated  at 
the  same  time. 

WEANING. 

The  age  at  which  pigs  may  be  weaned  with  the  greatest  advantage 
is  when  they  are  about  eight  or  ten  weeks  old ;  many  persons,  how- 
ever, wean  them  as  early  as  six  weeks,  but  then  they  seldom  turn 
out  so  well.  They  should  not  be  taken  from  the  sow  at  once,  but  gra- 
dually weaned.  At  first  they  should  be  removed  from  her  for  a 
certain  number  of  hours  each  day,  and  accustomed  to  be  driven  by 
hunger  to  eat  from  the  trough ;  then  they  may  be  turned  out  for  an 
hour  without  her,  and  afterwards  shut  up  while  she  is  turned  out 
also  by  herself.  Subsequently  they  must  only  be  allowed  to  suck 
so  often  in  twenty-four  hours ;  perhaps  six  times  at  first,  then  four, 
then  twice,  and  at  last  only  once  ;  and  meanwhile  they  must  be  pro- 
portionally better  and  more  plentifully  fed,  and  the  mother's  diet  in 
a  like  manner  diminished ;  thus  will  the  weaning  be  accomplished 
without  danger  or  evil  consequences  to  either.  Some  persons  have 
advised  that  the  whole  litter  should  not  be  weaned  at  once ;  we  do 
not,  however,  agree  with  them,  unless  it  should  happen  that  one  or 
two  of  the  young  ones  are  much  weaker  and  smaller  than  the 
others ;  in  such  case,  if  the  sow  remains  in  tolerable  condition,  they 
might  be  suffered  to  suck  for  a  week  longer;  but  such  a  mode 
of  proceeding  should  be  an  exception,  not  a  general  rule. 

Pigs  are  more  easily  weaned  than  almost  any  other  animals, 
because  they  learn  to  feed  sooner ;  but  nevertheless  this  is  always  a 
somewhat  critical  period,  and  great  attention  must  be  paid  to  them 
if  we  would  have  them  grow  up  strong,  healthy  animals.  Their 
styes  must  be  warm,  dry,  clean,  well  ventilated,  and  weather-tight. 
They  should  have  the  run  of  a  grass  meadow  or  paddock  for  an  hour 
or  two  every  fine  day,  in  the  spring  and  summer,  or  be  turned  into 
the  farm-yard  among  the  cattle  in  the  winter,  as  fresh  air  and  exer- 


WEANING.  169 

cise  tend  to  prevent  them  from  becoming  rickety  or  crooked  in  the 
legs. 

Butter-milk,  whey,  and  the  refuse  of  the  dairy,  with  boiled  or 
steamed  potatoes,  pollard,  and  oat  or  barleymeal,  may  be  given*  as 
food ;  also  boiled  cabbage  and  lettuce,  macerated  and  bruised  oats, 
barley,  and  even  wheat ;  in  short,  the  most  nutritious  and  succulent 
food  that  circumstances  will  permit  of,  and  a  daily  run  at  grass 
wherever  it  is  possible.  At  first  their  food  should  all  be  given  to 
them  warm,  and  be  tolerably  soft,  in  order  better  to  assimilate  with 
the  state  of  the  digestive  functions ;  gradually  and  soon  they  must 
be  accustomed  to  take  it  cold,  it  being  far  better  for  them  so  when 
once  they  are  used  to  it ;  and  they  must  also  learn  to  masticate 
their  food. 

Newly-weaned  pigs  require  five  or  six  meals  in  the  twenty-four 
hours.  In  about  ten  days  one  may  be  omitted ;  in  another  week, 
a  second ;  and  then  they  must  do  with  three  regular  meals  each 
day. 

But  let  it  be  understood  that,  while  we  would  enforce  the  neces- 
sity of  good  and  ample  feeding,  we  highly  deprecate  all  excess,  and 
all  stimulating,  heating  diet,  such  tending  to  vitiate  the  animal 
powers,  often  to  lay  the  foundation  of  disease,  and  never  to  produce 
good,  sound,  well-flavored  flesh. 

A  little  sulphur  mingled  with  the  food,  or  a  small  quantity  of 
Epsom  or  Glauber's  salts  disolved  in  the  water,  will  frequently 
prove  beneficial. 

A  plentiful  supply  of  clear  cold  water  should  always  be  within 
their  reach ;  the  food  left  in  the  trough  after  the  animals  have  done 
eating,  should  be  removed,  and  the  trough  thoroughly  rinsed  out 
before  any  more  is  put  into  it.  Strict  attention  should  be  paid  to 
cleanliness  ;  indeed,  many  persons  assert  that  there  is  no  comparison 
in  point  of  thriving  between  an  animal  well  cleaned  and  repeatedly 
brushed  and  another  that  is  left  to  itself;  although  both  shall  be  in 
feeding  and  all  other  respects  treated  exactly  the  same,  the  latter 
will  not  weigh  so  much  as  the  former  by  many  pounds. 

This  treatment  will  bring  them  on  to  the  time  when  the  owner 
must  separate  those  he  intends  for  breeders  from  those  which  are  to 
be  fattened  for  the  market.  The  boars  and  sows  should  be  kept 
apart  from  the  period  of  weaning. 

The  question  of  which  is  most  profitable — to  breed  swine,  or  to 
buy  young  pigs  and  fatten  them — will  best  be  determined  by  the 
individuals  who  have  to  study  it,  for  they  know  best  what  resources 
they  can  command,  and  what  chance  of  profits  each  of  these  separate 
branches  offers. 

There  was  an  interesting  paper  published  some  little  time  since 
in  the  Farmer's  Magazine,  calculating  the  number  of  pigs  which,  in 
the  course  of  ten  years,  may  be  raised  from  two  one  year  old  sows, 
8 


170  THE   HOG. 

We  give  it  verbatim,  as  many  of  our  readers  have  probably  never 
entered  into  such  a  calculation,  or  formed  the  least  idea  of  the  amaz- 
ing quantity  of  animal  food  which  may  be  derived  from  this  kind  of 
stock : 

"  I  am  indebted  to  a  worthy  and  sensible  friend,  and  a  friend  also 
of  the  poor,  for  the  following  estimate  of  what  I  shall  term  '  pig 
population,'  and  set  it  in  array  against  the  increasing  demands  of  the 
home  populatiqn,  which  goes  on  at  the  rate  of  not  quite  1£  per  cent, 
per  annum — nay,  little  more  than  H  by  the  last  ten  years'  census. 
I  think,  with  the  assistance  of  my  above-mentioned  friend,  I  can  feed 
the  supernumeraries  well,  and  in  this  way,  at  all  events,  save  their 
bacon.  Would  you  credit  the  assertion  that  in  ten  years — ten  short 
years — and  from  two  breeding  sows,  many  millions  can  be  pro- 
duced ?  Would  you  suppose  (for  I  certainly  had  no  conception  of 
the  fact)  that  more  than  the  present  or  even  anticipated  population 
of  the  country  for  ten  years  to  come  is  not  equal  to  the  number  of 
pigs  to  be  thus  born  and  bred  in  the  same  period,  if  we  choose  ? 
But  I  shall  proceed  to  proof  and  give  the  figures,  which  are  un- 
answerable arguments  when  well  founded.  His  calculation,  then,  is 
as  follows,  viz. :  that  in  one  year  two  sows  (one  year  old)  will 
breed  ten  each,  of  which  we  shall  assume  that  one-half  are  females, 
and  so  proceed  on  that  assumed  equality. 

"  The  first  year  there  will  be  males  and  females 20 

From  which  take  the  males 10 

And  we  have  the  result  as  breeders 10 

At  the  second  year,  then,  we  may  fairly  take  the  same  ratio  of  ten  to 
each,  viz, : , 10 

2)100 

And  it  gives  us  a  hundred  males  and  females,  leaving,  con- 

sequently,  for  the  third  year,  breeders 50 

I  shall  now  drop  the  text,  and  merely  give  the  figures,  the  same  prin- 
ciple applying  throughout 10 

Third  year 2)500 

250 
10 

Fourth  year : 2)2,500 

1,250 
10 


Fifthyear 2)12,500 

6,250 

10 
62.500 


HOG  POPULATION.  171 

Sbrthyear 2)62,500 

31,250 
10 

Seventh  year 2) 312,50C 

156,250 
10 

Eighth  year 2)1,562,500 

781,250 
10 

Ninth  year. 2)7,812,500 

3,906,250 
10 


Tenth  year,  males  and  females. , 39,062,500 

"  I  hope  my  friend  has  brought -his  pigs  to  a  good  market ;  but  to 
equalize  the  supply,  I  shall,  for  the  present  purpose,  take  only  the 
male  half  of  the  pig  population  for  food,  leaving  the  breeders  to 
go  on.  In  this  way  we  can  kill  and  eat  ten  the  first  year — no  bad 
increase  from'  two  sows,  recollect ;  the  second  year,  50 ;  the  third, 
250;  the  fourth,  1250;  the  fifth,  6250;  the  sixth,  31,250  (pork  in 
abundance  now)  ;  the  seventh.  156,250  (still  more  abundant) ;  the 
eighth,  781,250 ;  the  ninth,  3,906,250  ;  and  the  tenth,  when  divided 
in  like  manner,  the  enormous  number  of  19,531,250  for  food,  with- 
out interfering  with  the  breeders,  who,  I  presume,  by  this  time  will 
probably  require  killing  also.  Now,  I  am  not  aware  that  much  com- 
mentary is  required  on  this  prolific  subject ;  every  man  who  reads 
this  short  paper  will  at  once  draw  his  own  conclusions  from  the  facts. 
They  are,  however,  of  a  very  cheering  description,  and  drawn  from 
the  breeding  of  one  domestic  animal  only,  and  amply  prove  what 
abundant  stores  nature  and  the  God  of  nature  have  provided  for 
human  subsistence.  I  shall  close  this  paper  with  the  sensible  prac- 
tical observation  of  my  friend  in  reference  to  this  subject,  as,  after 
all,  it  is  in  practice  only  that  the  benefits  open  to  all  are  to  be 
received  by  any.  In  the  county  of  Kent,  he  informs  me,  there  are 
31,000  agricultural  families  or  farmers.  It  is  a  very  easy  matter 
for  each  to  keep  two  breeding-sows,  which  in  three  years  would  pro- 
duce in  round  numbers  15,000,000  of  pigs. 

"  In  the  fifty-two  counties  of  England,  he  also  adds,  the  number  of 
agricultural  families  is  760,000 ;  so  that,  by  the  same  mode  of  cal- 
culation as  for  Kent,  every  farmer  keeping  two  sows,  the  produce 
would  be,  in  the  like  period,  380,000,000  pigs.  One  good  breeding 
sow  to  each  would  consequently  produce  15,000,000.  As  I  have 


172  THE    HOG. 

said,  and  say  again,  is  this  all  true  ?  for  if  so,  what  prevents  the  im- 
mediate use  of  the  same  beneficial  proceeding  to  every  one,  not  even 
omitting  the  allotment  tenant1?  What  more  easy  and  practicable 
than  to  breed  on  a  small  scale,  or  to  join  two  or  three  families  toge- 
ther, and  thus  diminish  expense  and  increase  profits  1  I  throw  out 
the  hint,  and  hope  that  good  may  arise  from  a  due  consideration  of 
the  prominent  facts  already  stated." 

With  the  following  valuable  remarks  by  that  well-known  practical 
agriculturist  and  grazier,  Arthur  Young,  we  will  conclude  this  chap- 
ter:— 

"  The  breeding  of  swine  being  one  of  the  most  profitable  articles 
in  the  whole  business  of  a  farm,  the  husbandman  cannot  pay  too 
much  attention  to  it.     I  shall,  in  as  few  words  as  the  subject  will 
admit,  give  an  account  of  the  best  system  to  be  pursued  in  thia 
branch  of  his  business.     The  farmer  who  would  make  a  considerable 
profit  by  hogs  must  determine  to  keep  a  proper  number  of  sows  in 
order  to  breed  many  pigs;  but  this  resolution  ought  to  be  preceded 
by  the  most  careful  determination  to  prepare  crops  proper  for  sup- 
porting this  stock.     The  proper  ones  for  that  purpose  are  barley, 
buck,  beans,  peas,  clover,  potatoes  or  carrots.     In  the  common  ma- 
nagement,  a  farmer  keeps  only  a  sow  or  two  because  his  dairy  will 
do  no  more ;  but  in  the  system  of  planting  crops  purposely  for  swine, 
a  different  conduct  must  necessarily  be  pursued.     Potatoes,  carrots, 
Swedish  turnips,  and  cabbages,  must  be  provided  for  the  sows  and 
stores  from  October  till  the  end  of  May,  by  which  time  clover,  chi- 
cory, or  lucerne  should  be  ready  to  receive  them,  which  will  carry 
them  till  the  stubbles  are  cleared ;  so  that  the  whole  year  is  filled 
up  with  these  plants,  and  the  common  offal  of  the  barn-door  and  the 
corn-fields.     When  the  sows  pig,  meal  must  be  provided  to  make 
wash  by  mixing  it  with  water.     This  in  summer  will  be  good  enough 
for  their  support,  and  in  winter  it  must  be  mixed  with  boiled  roots, 
oats,  and  pea-soup,  for  the  young  pigs.     If  cows  are  kept,  then  the 
dairy-wash  is  to  be  used  in  the  above  mixtures. 

"  Upon  this  system,  a  farmer  may  proportion  his  swine  to  his 
crops,  or  his  crops  to  his  swine ;  and  he  will  find  that  for  the  whole 
year  he  should  have  about  an  equal  quantity  of  roots  and  grass,  and 
half  as  much  corn  as  potatoes.  For  carrying  the  profit  to  the  highest 
advantage,  the  sows  should  pig  but  twice  a-year,  that  is,  in  April  and 
August,  by  which  means  there  will  never  be  a  long  and  expensive 
season  for  rearing  pigs  before  they  are  put  to  the  staple  food  of  clover 
or  potatoes,  &c. ;  but  this  circumstance  is  much  removed  by  the 
provision  of  crops  raised  expressly  for  the  swine. 

"  Upon  this  plan  the  annual  sale  of  lean  hogs  should  be  in  October, 
the  litters  of  April  sold  then  as  stores,  and  those  of  August  kept  till 
October  twelvemonth  to  sell  for  baconers,  if  the  farmer  feeds  none 
himself.  The  stock  upon  hand  this  month  will  therefore  be  the  sows, 


FEEDING.  173 

and  the  pigs  littered  in  the  preceding  August,  all  which  should  have 
roots  from  the  store,  and  run  at  the  same  time  in  the  farm-yard,  fe»* 
shacking  the  straw  of  the  barn-doors.  In  proportion  to  what  they 
find  in  this,  you  must  supply  them  with  roots,  giving  enough  to  keep 
them  in  growth." 


CHAPTER  XII. 

On  Feeding  Swine—Fat  Pigs— Cattle  Shows— Whey,  Milk,  and  Dairy  Refuse— Refute  an« 
Grains  of  Distilleries  and  Breweries — Residue  of  Starch  Manufactories — Vegetables  and 
Roots— Fruits— Grain— Soiling  and  Pasturing  Swine— Animal  Substances  as  Food  for  them— 
General  Directions  for  Feeding  and  Fattening. 

MARTIN  says : 

"  That  great  attention  should  be  paid  to  the  hog,  especially  in  a 
country  like  England,  and  when  we  consider  its  importance  as  a  flesh- 
giving  animal,  is  not  surprising.  There  is,  in  fact,  no  part  of  the  hog, 
its  bristles  excepted,  which  is  not  consumed  ;  the  very  intestines  are 
cleansed,  and  knotted  into  chitterlings,  by  many  persons  exceedingly 
relished  ;  the  blood,  mixed  with  fat  and  rice,  is  made  into  black  pud- 
dings ;  the  skin  of  pork  roasted,  is  a  bonne  bouche  ;  a  roast  sucking 
pig  is  hailed  with  satisfaction ;  salt  pork  and  bacon  are  in  incessant 
demand,  and  are  important  articles  of  commerce.  Great  quantities 
are  prepared  in  Ireland  for  exportation,  and  great  quantities  are  also 
prepared  in  England.  It  is  stated  by  Dr.  Mavor,  in  his  ;  Survey  of 
Berkshire,'  that  at  Farringdon  fully  four  thousand  are  annually  killed 
and  cured. 

"  One  great  value  of  the  hog  arises  from  the  peculiarity  of  its  fat, 
which,  in  contradistinction  to  that  of  the  ox  or  that  of  the  sheep,  is 
termed  lard,  and  differs  from  them  in  the  proportion  of  its  consti- 
tuent principles,  which  are  essentially  olein,  or  elain,  and  stearin. 
All  fats  agree  in  being  insoluble  in  water.  It  may  not  be  uninterest- 
ing to  the  reader  to  know  the  distinguishing  characters  of  the  fat  of 
our  three  most  important  flesh-giving  domestic  animals. 

"  Ox  Fat. — When  this  has  been  fused,  it  begins  to  solidify  at  98°, 
and  the  temperature  then  rises  (on  account  of  the  evolution  of  latent 
heat)  to  102°.  Forty  parts  of  boiling  alchol  of  sp.  gr.  0'821  dis- 
solve one  part  of  it,  and  it  contains  about  three-fourths  its  weight  of 
stearin,  which  is  solid,  hard,  colorless,  not  greasy,  and  of  a  granular 
texture.  It  fuses  at  about  112°,  and  may  then  be  cooled  to  102°; 
when,  on  congealing,  it  rises  to  112°.  It  burns  like  white  wax.  Of 
this  stearin,  about  15'5  parts  are  dissolved  by  100  parts  of  anhy- 
drous alcohol. 


174  THE  HOG. 

"Theolein  of  ox  fat  is  colorless,  nearly  inodorous,  and  its  specific 
gravity  (V913  ;  boiling  alcohol  dissolves  nearly  one-fourth  more  than 
its  weight. 

"Steep's  Fat,  or  Mutton  Suet,  greatly  resembles  that  of  the  ox. 
It  is,  however,  whiter,  and,  by  exposure  to  the  air,  acquires  a  peculiar 
odor.  After  fusion,  it  congeals  at  a  temperature  varying  between 
ite-  and  102°.  It  dissolves  in  44  parts  of  alcohol  of  sp.  gr.  0*821 . 
The  stearin  is  white,  translucent,  and,  after  fusion,  but  imperfectly 
crystalline.  About  16  parts  are  dissolved  by  100  parts  of  boiling 
anhydrous  alcohol.  The  olein  of  mutton  suet  is  colorless.  Its 
specific  gravity  is  0'913,  and  80  parts  of  it  are  dissolved  by  100 
parts  of  anhydrous  alcohol  at  168°. 

"Hog's  Fat,  or  Hog's  Lard,  is  a  soft,  colorless  solid,  which  fuses 
between  78°  and  86°.  Is  specific  gravity  at  60°  is  0938.  By 
powerful  and  long-continued  pressure  between  folds  of  blotting 
paper,  it  is  stated  to  yield  62-100ths  of  its  weight  of  colorless 
olein,  of  specific  gravity  0'915.  Of  this,  100  parts  of  boiling 
alcohol  dissolve  123  parts.  The  stearin  of  hog's  lard  is  inodorous, 
solid,  and  granular,  which,  after  fusion,  remains  liquid  down  to  100°, 
and  then,  on  congealing,  the  temperature  rises  to  109°.  It  becomes 
acid  by  exposure  to  the  air. 

"  Different  as  are  the  qualities  of  stearin  and  olein,  analysis  shows 
that  their  composition  is  less  remote  than  might  be  expected.  The 
subjoined  analysis  of  mutton  may  be  taken  as  a  general  example : — 

Stearin.  Olein. 

Hydrogen        ....    11-770        .        .        .11-090 
Carbon        ....         78-776    .        .  79-354 

Oxygen 9-454        .    .   •%      •       9'556 

100-  100- 

"  One  great  value  of  the  hog,  arises  from  the  peculiarity  of  its 
fat.  The  great  mass  of  this  fat  is  laid  on  under  the  skin,  and  be- 
tween the  superficial  muscles. 

"  Vancouver,  in  his  '  Survey  of  Essex,'  makes  the  following  judi- 
cious observations  relative  to  the  management  and  value  of  hogs : — 
•  There  is  no  animal  in  the  whole  economy  of  good  husbandry  that 
requires  more  attention  as  to  breed,  number,  and  supply  of  food,  or 
will  better  requite  the  care  and  trouble  of  the  farmer,  than  a  well- 
managed  and  proper  stock  of  hogs.  These  things,  however,  are  too 
much  overlooked,  or  rather  disregarded,  by  farmers  in  general, 
though  all  are  ready  to  agree  that  an  overstock  in  other  respects 
must  ever  prove  fatal  to  the  interests  of  the  farmer.  Hogs  are  too 
frequently  conceived  to  be  a  trifling  and  unimportant  part  of  the 
stock  of  a  farm;  whereas,  if  their  first  cost  and  the  value  of  their 
food  were  duly  considered,  with  their  improving  value,  it  would 
certainly  bea^  them  out  against  some  of  the  more  costly  animals, 


FEEDING,  175 

and  challenge  more  care  and  attention  than  are  usually  bestowed 
upon  them.  A  due  regard  to  the  breed  which  the  peculiar  circum- 
stances of  the  farm  may  call  for  is  particularly  necessary,  as  some 
breeds  are  much  better  suited  to  pasture,  and  feed  upon  grass  and 
nerbs,  than  others.  The  most  hardy  and  best  qualified  to  prog  for 
themselves  are  the  Chinese,  a  cross  with  which  breed  upon  almost 
any  other  may,  under  most  circumstances,  be  prudently  recom- 
mended. Let  the  breed  be  what  it  may,  a  well-proportioned  stock 
to  every  farm  will  most  abundantly  requite  the  care  and  repay  the 
expense  of  the  necessary  food  provided  for  them.  A  few  acres  of 
clover  would  be  well  applied  to  the  use  of  the  hogs  in  summer ;  but 
in  the  sty  it  would  be  well  to  restrain  them  to  a  certain  quantity  of 
water,  and  to  lodge  them  clean  and  dry,  notwithstanding  the  wilful 
neglect  and  too  prevailing  opinion  to  the  contrary  ;  for  cleanliness  is 
as  essential  to  the  preservation  of  their  health  and  well-doing  as  to 
that  of  any  other  animal.' 

"  These  views  are  very  different  from  those  of  a  writer  in  the 
Quarterly  Journal  of  Agriculture,  who  says,  '  It  is  greatly  doubted 
by  many  competent  judges,  whether  swine  form  a  profitable  stock, 
at  least  when  fed  on  food  which  requires  to  be  raised  for  the  purpose. 
The  results  deduced  from  calculations  entered  into,  to  show  the  pro- 
bable return  for  a  given  quantity  of  grain,  roots,  or  other  vegetable 
produce,  are,  however,  so  discordant  as  to  avail  but  little  in  the  for- 
mation of  a  settled  and  conclusive  opinion.  In  connexion  with  dis- 
tilleries, dairies,  breweries,  and  other  large  establishments,  they  are 
of  much  higher  and  assured  importance,  and  return,  in  proportion 
to  the  offal  they  consume,  a  great  quantity  of  meat.  Their  chief 
advantage  as  live  stock  probably  consists  in  their  being  nourished  by 
what  would  otherwise  either  prove  nearly  useless,  or  be  entirely  lost. 
When  potatoes  are  raised  as  a  fallow  crop,  exceeding  the  demands 
of  human  consumption,  the  rearing  of  swine  for  bacon  and  pickled 
pork  becomes  an  advisable  branch  of  rural  economy.' 

"  No  one,  we  presume,  would  keep  pigs  without  having  the  means 
of  feeding  them  at  his  command,  all  necessary  conveniences,  and  a 
proper  system  of  management.  Under  such  circumstances  they 
will  return  ample  profit,  a  fact  well  known  in  America,  where 
the  hog  is  important  to  a  degree  elsewhere  unknown,  Ireland  not 
excepted. 

"  If  this  animal  is  profitable  to  proprietors  of  large  establish- 
ments, to  great  distillers,  to  millers,  to  farmers  and  dairymen,  so  it 
is  to  the  laboring  peasant  who  cultivates  a  little  garden,  and  collects 
the  refuse  of  the  kitchens  of  his  wealthier  neighbors ;  he  will  have 
two  or  three  litters  in  the  course  of  the  year,  saleable  as  '  sucking 
pigs'  at  the  age  of  three  or  four  weeks,  and  at  Christmas  he  will  kill 
two,  three,  or  four  fat  pigs,  and  find  a  ready  sale  for  the  meat,  be- 
sides  turning  part  into  bacon  for  bi*  own  family.  This  is  no  theory; 


176  THE   HOG. 

we  ourselves  know  those  who  act  upon  the  plan,  and  find  it  a  source 
of  profit  and  comfort.  It  would  not,  however,  do  for  the  idle  or  the 
improvident ;  it  demands  industry,  order,  and  fore-thought,  ar  d  that 
assistance,  which,  while  the  man  is  going  on  with  his  regular  work, 
his  wife  or  some  part  of  hisx  family  can  render. 

"  Exclusive  of  bacon,  hams,  &c.,  great  is  the  demand  for  fresh 
pork  throughout  our  island- — much  greater,  indeed,  than  formerly, 
and  this  is  in  some  measure  owing  to  the  improvement  of  our  breeds ; 
our  porkers  are  small-sized,  with  fine-grained  delicate  flesh,  and  firm 
fat,  sufficiently  but  not  superabundantly  laid  on,  and  the  skin  is  thin 
and  clear ;  the  limbs  are  round  and  fine-boned.  Such  is  the  country- 
fed  pork  to  be  seen  in  London  and  in  other  towns.  Formerly  such 
pork  was  never  sent  to  market,  and  in  some  counties  it  is  still  un- 
known. We  allude  to  the  more  northern  of  the  midland  counties, 
and  those  still  farther  north.  A  relative  farming  in  Derbyshire,  and 
on  a  visit  to  the  author,  expressed  his  surprise  at  the  smallness  and 
delicacy  of  the  dairy-fed  pork  placed  upon  our  table.  His  idea  of 
fresh  pork  was  limited  to  spare-ribs,  and  griskins  of  bacon  hogs; 
and  he  deemed  the  destruction  of  young  porkers  for  food  utter  folly. 
He  forgot,  perhaps  never  reflected  that  these  younglings,  by  quick 
returns  and  good  profits,  remunerated  the  farmer,  miller,  or  dairy 
man  far  more  than  they  would  have  done  if  kept  to  be  bacon  hogs 
and  fed  up  to  the  proper  pitch. 

"  We  have  sufficiently  demonstrated  the  value  of  the  pig  as  one 
of  the  flesh-producing  animals  which  man  has  reclaimed.  Through- 
out the  whole  of  Europe,  and  the  greater  portion  of  America,  the 
flesh  of  the  hog,  fresh,  salted,  or  cured,  is  in  constant  demand ;  nor 
less  so  the  lard,  which  is  required  by  the  cook,  by  the  apothecary, 
and  by  the  perfumer. 

*'  No  part  of  the  hog,  as  we  have  said,  is  useless ;  not  even  its 
bristles  or  its  skin. 

"  The  bristles  of  our  fine-bred  races  are  perhaps  of  no  value — 
they  are  generally  short,  slender,  and  thinly  set ;  but  in  the  coarser 
breeds,  they  are  long  and  strong,  firm  and  elastic.  The  export  of 
bristles  alone  from  Russia  and  Prussia  into  our  country,  forms  nr 
inconsiderable  item.  We  need  not  detail  their  various  uses. 

"  With  respect  to  the  hide  of  this  animal,  it  is,  when  tanned,  of  a 
peculiar  texture,  and  very  tough.  It  is  used  for  making  pocket- 
books,  and  for  some  ornamental  purposes,  but  chiefly  for  covering 
saddles.  The  numerous  little  variegations  in  it,  and  which  constitute 
its  beauty,  are  the  orifices  whence  the  bristles  have  been  removed." 
— MARTIN. 

The  establishment  of  agricultural  societies  and  cattle-shows  formed 
the  commencement  of  4  new  era  in  the  breeding  of  all  domesticated 
animals,  and  especially  of  swine,  which  had,  previously  to  that  epoch, 
been  very  much  neglected.  There  cannot  be  a  doubt  but  that  the 


0  FEEDING.  177 

competition,  the  assembling  together  of  breeders  from  all  counties 
and  even  from  abroad,  the  comparison  of  the  different  animals 
brought  together,  and  the  conclusions  drawn  in  many  minds,  tend 
materially  to  the  elucidation  and  advancement  of  the  science  of  breed- 
ing. Persons  resident  in  remote  localities  are  apt  to  set  up  for  them- 
selves some  particular  standard  of  excellence,  and  make  it  the  whole 
aim  of  their  endeavors  to  obtain  and  develop  certain  points  in  an 
animal,  and  having  done  this  they  rest  satisfied ;  but  when  the 
annual  cattle  show  places  before  them  other  and  evidently  superior 
animals,  they  perceive  how  much  too  limited,  and  often  how  erro- 
neous, have  been  their  views,  and  set  to  work  afresh  to  improve  upon 
the  knowledge  thus  acquired. 

But  there  is  no  good  without  its  attendant  evil.  It  was,  doubtless, 
originally  intended  by  those  who  established  the  distribution  of 
prizes  for  certain  kinds  of  stock,  that  the  prize  animal  should  be  the 
most  excellent  as  to  its  points,  the  most  useful  to  the  farmer,  breed- 
er, and  butcher,  and  altogether  the  most  profitable ;  but  not  that  it 
should  be  the  fattest !  It  is  reported  that,  on  Hannah  More  being 
asked  what  was  the  use  of  cattle-shows,  she  replied,  "  To  induce  peo- 
ple to  make  beef  and  mutton  so  fat  that  nobody  can  eat  it."  This 
certainly  is  the  abuse  of  them,  and  in  no  class  of  animals  is  it  carried 
to  such  an  extent  as  in  swine.  The  greedy  propensities  of  the  poor 
animal  are  worked  upon ;  he  is  shut  up,  often  in  darkness,  and  fed 
and  suffered  to  gorge  himself  until  he  can  scarcely  move  or  breathe, 
and  often  dies  of  suffocation,  or  is  obliged  to  be  killed,  from  the  sim- 
ple exertion  of  being  brought  to  the  show  in  the  most  easy  and  care- 
ful manner.  A  premium  would  be  far  better  bestowed  upon  the 
most  useful  and  profitable  animal,  the  one  most  likely  to  make  good 
bacon  or  pork,  than  on  these  huge  masses  of  obesity,  whose  super- 
abundance of  fat  is  fit  for  little  else  but  the  melting-pot.  As  much 
money  is  often  wasted  on  one  of  these  monsters  as  would  purchase 
food  for  half  a  dozen  really  profitable  animals.  And  to  what  pur- 
pose 1  Simply  to  test  the  elastic  power  of  a  pig's  skin  ?  "  No," 
reply  the  advocates  of  this  species  of  monomania,  "  but  to  discover 
which  breeds  can  be  fattened  to  the  greatest  size  in  the  shortest  time^ 
and  on  the  smallest  amount  of  food."  And  to  this  plea  we  can  only 
reply,  that  while  we  admit  the  value  of  such  knowledge,  we  think  it 
might  be  attained  without  the  sacrifice  of  a  fine  animal,  at  much  less 
expense,  and  far  more  satisfactorily.  Let  the  animals  be  fat,  but  do 
not  let  them  be  a  mere  bladder  of  lard,  "  of  shape  undefined,"  every 
point  lost  and  buried.  It  is  fine  and  profitable  breeds  we  require, 
not  monstrosities.  The  grand  aim  of  agricultural  societies  is  to  pro- 
mote the  improvement,  of  the  breeds,  and  consequently  the  profit  of 
the  breeder,  and  general  advantage.  We  trust  that  this  will  shortly 
be  fully  understood  and  carried  out,  and  the  cattle-shows  become,  as 
it  were,  model-rooms,  instead  of  mere  exhibitions  of  over-fed,  pant- 


178  THE  HOG. 

ing,  unshapely  beasts.  But  it  is  not  our  feeble  voice  alone  which  ia 
raised  against  this  unnatural  stuffing :  public  attention  has  latterly 
bsen  much  called  to  this  point ;  and  among  others,  our  merry  critic 
*\mch,  who  fails  not  to  lash  each  passing  folly  of  the  age,  has,  as  will 
'  «  seen  by  the  following  epitaph,  not  been  unmindful  of  this  one : — 

"Epitaph  on  a  Prize  Pig. 

HERE  LIES 

ALL     THAT     WAS     EATABLE 
OF    A   PRIZE    PIG. 

HE    WAS    BORN 
ON   FEBRUARY    1,    1845: 

HE    WAS    FED 

ON   MILK,    POTATOES,    AND 

BARLEY-MEAL  I 

HE     WAS     SLAUGHTERED 

ON     DECEMBER     24,    1846, 

WEIGHING  80st.  91  bs. 

,  :v. '  STOP,  TRAVELLER  ! 

AND    REFLECT    HOW    SMALL    A    PORTION 

OF     THIS     VAST      PIG 

WAS    PORK     SUITABLE 


Hurtrel  D'Arboval,  treating  of  Obesity,  says,  "  There  is,  however 
no  animal  so  liable  to  become  over-fat,  as  the  pig,  and  especially  the 
Chinese  and  Siamese  swine.  Naturally  inclined  to  corpulence  aiK 
gluttony,  they  easily  acquire  an  enormous  bulk  ;  and  when  fat  ha* 
once  begun  to  accumulate,  the  animal  eats  little,  breathes  with  diffi 
culty,  becomes  inert,  unable  to  sustain  his  own  weight,  and  deficient 
in  sensation.  We  have  seen  wretched  pigs  so  fat  that  they  were 
obliged  to  be  lifted  or  dragged  out  of  the  sty  whenever  it  was  neces- 
sary to  move  them.  We  have  also  made  incisions  in  their  buttocks 
and  even  taken  off  portions  of  skin  from  their  backs,  without  their 
betraying  any  sense  of  pain.  We  saw  one  hog  that  had  lain  for  a 
considerable  period  on  one  side,  too  powerless  or  too  inert  even  to 
shift  its  position,  and  when  it  was  raised,  a  large  hole  was  perceived 
in  that  part  of  the  back  which  had  been  undermost.  This  had  been 
made  by  rats  feeding  and  gnawing  into  the  fat  of  the  beast,  evidently 
without  its  being  in  the  least  conscious  of  their  proceedings. 

"Animals  that  have  been  castrated  are  always  more  disposed  to 
obesity." 

We  will  now  proceed  to  consider  the  various  modes  of  keeping 
and  feeding  swine  and  their  relative  value,  and  the  other  incidental 
matters  which  may  develop  themselves  as  we  proceed. 


FEEDING.  179 

Swine  arc  generally  fattened  for  pork  at  from  six  to  nine  months 
old,  and  for  bacon  at  from  a  twelvemonth  to  two  years.  Eighteen 
months  is  generally  considered  to  be  the  proper  age  for  a  good 
bacon  hog. 

The  feeding  of  pigs  will  always,  in  a  great  measure,  depend  upon 
the  circumstances  of  the  owner,  upon  the  kind  of  food  which  he  has 
at  his  disposal  and  can  best  spare,  and  the  purpose  for  which  he  in- 
tends  the  animals.  It  will  also  be  in  some  degree  regulated  by  the 
season,  it  being  possible  to  feed  pigs  very  differently  in  the  summer 
to  what  they  are  fed  in  the  winter.  During  the  former  they  can 
either  be  sty -fed  or  pastured,  or  both ;  and  there  is  also  a  greater 
variety  of  vegetables  and  green  food  for  them,  as  well  as  of  dairy 
refuse ;  while  in  the  winter  they  must  be  home-fed,  and  in  most 
cases  their  diet  limited  to  roots,  peas,  beans,  or  other  such  dried 
food,  and  wash  composed  of  the  scanty  residue  of  the  dairy,  or  sup- 
plied from  the  house  or  brewery. 

WHEY,  MILK,  AND  DAIRY  REFUSE. 

For  sty-fed  pigs  the  washings  of  the  dairy,  as  butter  and  skim- 
milk,  whey,  &c.,  are  excellent,  and  especially  whey  thickened  with 
barley,  or  oat,  or  pea-meal,  whey  being  more  nourishing  than  skim- 
milk  ;  the  animals  thrive  and  make  flesh  so  well  on  it,  that  many 
farmers  are  of  opinion  that  this  mode  of  employing  their  sour  milk 
is  more  profitable  than  making  cheese.  But  when  the  swine  have 
once  become  habituated  to  this  kind  of  diet  it  must  be  continued,  as 
they  would  fall  off  if  put  upon  any  other.  There  was  a  beautiful 
lot  of  Coleshill  pigs  exhibited  at  the  last  Smithfield  Club  Cattle- 
Show,  belonging  to  the  Earl  of  Radnor,  aged  twenty-one  weeks, 
which  had  been  fattened  on  forty-eight  bushels  of  barley-meal  and 
six  bushels  of  potatoes,  with  an  adequate  quantity  of  whey. 
Wherever,  therefore,  there  are  large  dairies,  swine  may  be  most 
advantageously  kept,  the  excellence  of  dairy-fed  pork  befog  incon- 
testable. 

WASH,  GRAINS,  AND  REFUSE  OF  BREWERIES  AND  DISTILLERIES. 

The  refuse  wash  and  grains,  and  other  residue  of  breweries  and 
distilleries,  may  also  be  given  to  swine  with  advantage,  and  seem  to 
induce  a  tendency  to  lay  on  flesh,  but  not  in  too  large  quantities,  or 
unmixed  with  other  and  more  substantial  food ;  as,  although  they 
gain  flesh  rapidly  when  fed  on  it,  the  meat  is  not  firm,  and  never 
makes  good  bacon. 

Thaer  advises  that  the  refuse  of  brandy-distilleries  should  always 
be  diluted  with  water  at  first,  otherwise  the  animals  will  reject  it,  or, 
if  they  take  it,  become  giddy,  and  be  unable  to  keep  their  feet , 


180  THE  HOG. 

afterwards,  the  quantity  of  this  food  may  be  gradually  increased  till 
they  are  completely  accustomed  to  it.  Neuenhahn  says  that  the 
refuse  of  the  brandy-distillery  cannot  be  given  to  the  pigs  too  warm, 
or  too  soon  after  its  removal  from  the  still,  and  that  it  never  heats 
their  blood ;  but  that,  if  it  be  allowed  to  get  cold  and  stale,  it  is 
rather  injurious  than  beneficial  to  them.  On  the  other  hand,  many 
experienced  distillers,  who  fatten  large  numbers  of  hogs,  assure  us 
that  it  requires  great  attention,  and  the  employment  of  a  man  on 
whose  care  we  can  rely,  to  prevent  this  residue  from  being  given 
to  the  animals  while  too  warm,  for  it  is  then  that  it  injures  and 
materially  retards  their  growth.  It  should  be  sometimes  thick, 
sometimes  diluted  with  water,  and  at  others  mixed  with  meal  or 
pollard,  in  order,  by  thus  varying  the  food,  to  keep  up  the  appetite 
of  the  animals. 

RESIDUE  OF  STARCH  MANUFACTORIES. 

The  residue  of  the  manufacture  of  starch,  the  products  of  the  va- 
rious washings  which  this  precaution  involves,  and  the  refuse  of 
wheat,  are  far  superior  to  brewers'  and  distillers'  refuse.  Hogs  fed 
upon  these  articles  fatten  more  quickly,  produce  firmer  flesh,  more 
substantial  bacon,  and  a  greater  quantity  of  lard.  At  first  the 
animals  will  often  eat  these  matters  with  great  avidity,  and  even  to 
excess,  and  when  this  is  the  case  they,  invariably  become  disgusted 
and  refuse  them  after  a  time.  The  quantity  must  therefore  be  care- 
fully regulated,  and  the  troughs  kept  very  clean.  If  this  kind  of 
food  be  used  alternately  with  one  of  a  different  nature,  the  fattening 
will  be  effected  with  greater  certainty.  The  quantity  of  this  refuse 
collected  at  once  is  often  greater  than  can  be  consumed  at  the  time, 
and  it  is  difficult  to  store  it  up,  because  its  animal  portions  so  soon 
putrefy.  The  only  mode  of  preservation  is  to  dry  it,  make  it  into 
cakes,  and  bake  it. 

*  VEGETABLES  AND  ROOTS. 

Cabbage  and  lettuce-leaves,  turnip-greens,  and  bean  and  pea-hauln. 
may  be  given  to  pigs  in  moderate  quantities  with  advantage,  but 
these  substances  should  be  chopped  up  small  and  mingled  in  the 
wash,  as  the  animals,  being  very  fond  of  such  food,  will  otherwise 
devour  it  too  ravenously  to  be  able  properly  to  masticate  it. 

Almost  all  our  common  roots  are  well  adapted  for  feeding  pigs  j 
carrots,  turnips,  parsnips,  beet-root,  and  last,  but  not  least,  the  pota- 
to, are  all  exceedingly  nutritive,  even  when  given  in  a  raw  state,  but 
that  cooking  tends  materially  to  increase  their  nourishing  powers  is 
a  fact  well  attested  by  numerous  experiments  and  general  expert 
ence.  Potatoes  should  be  steamed,  the  other  roots  boiled.  In 
Guernsey  the  parsnip  is  extensively  used  in  the  feeding  of  pigs, 


FEEDING.  181 

especially  from  September  to  Christmas,  and  eight  perches  of  land, 
each  producing  on  the  average  250  Ibs.  of  this  root,  are  considered 
as  the  general  allowance  for  fattening  a  pig  in  store  order.    But  the 
flesh  of  animals  thus  fed  is  not  so  firm  as  that  of  pigs  fed  on  pea  or 
barley-meal  with  a  slight  addition  of  corn,  and  shrinks  when  boiled, 
instead  of  plumping.     Carrots  are  considered  by  some  persons  to 
fatten  swine  more  rapidly  than  any  other  root,  and  to  impart  a  par- 
ticularly delicate   flavor   to   the  flesh;    they  may  be   given   raw. 
Potatoes  are,  however,  the  staple  food  in  by  far  the  greater  part  of 
England,  and  the  whole  of  Ireland.     They  should  be  steamed,  and 
then  mashed  with  meal  or  pea-flour  in  whey  or  sour  milk  (where  it 
can  be  had,)  or  in  wash  or  clear  water,  and  made  of  the  consistence 
of  porridge.     The  water  in  which  the  potatoes  have  been  cooked 
should  always  be  thrown  away.     This  root  should,  however,  only  be 
given  for  a  short  time,  as  it  is  by  no  means  a  rapid  fattener,  and 
does  not  make  firm  good  fat, — and  never  alone  if  it  can  be  avoided. 
Turnips  should  never  be  given  while  any  other  kind  of  food  can  be 
obtained,  as  their  effects  are  far  from  beneficial,  and  often  quite  the 
contrary.     Beans  and  peas,  both  green,  dried,  and  ground,  or  bruised 
and  macerated,  form  excellent  food.     Peas  are  considered  to  produce 
firmer  flesh,  and   to  fatten  quicker  than  beans.     The  gray  pea  is 
generally  allowed  to  be  the  best  adapted  for  swine,  and  to  contain 
most  nutrition.     Experiments  have  been  made  with  the  blue  pea, 
but  hogs  fed  on  it  had  always  a  tendency  to  diarrhoea.     Every  part 
of  the  pea,  the  haulm,  the  cods,  and  the  peas  themselves,  may  be 
used  in  feeding  pigs.     Sir  John  Sinclair  found  green  beans  also  very 
advantageous  food  for  swine ;  he  gives  preference  to  the  Windsor 
bean,  and  advises  that  two  or  three  successive  crops  of  them  should 
be  sown  in  order  to  secure  a  constant  supply  from  July  until  Sep- 
tember. 

In  the  "  Quarterly  Journal  of  Agriculture"  we  find  an  account  of 
some  experiments  made  with  the  view  of  testing  the  illative  fatten- 
ing powers  of  carrots,  potatoes,  peas,  wheat,  and  buckwheat. 

Five  couples  of  pigs  were  separately  put  up  to  fatten  : — 

Increase  of  Weight. 

To  couple  1  was  given  55  decalitres  of  peas        -        -        -    315  Ibs. 
"        2        "        283         <;  balls  of  wheat    -         339  Ibs. 

"        2        K          96          "  buckwheat     -         -    374  Ibs. 

"        4        "          98         '*  boiled  potatoes    -       284  Ibs. 

«        5        "        175          •'  carrots    -        -        -    394  Ibs. 

These  results  of  the  experiment  are,  however,  unsatisfactory,  be- 
cause it  is  not  mentioned  whether  the  pigs  were  all  of  the  same  age 
and  weight,  nor  is  it  stated  whether  the  quantity  of  food  marked  in 
the  table  was  as  much  as  the  pigs  could  consume. 

We  have  always  believed  that  peas  were  the  most  nutritious  food 
that  could  be  given  to  pigs,  and  this  experiment  confirms  the  belief, 


182  THE  HOG 

as  may  be  seen  on  comparing  the  relative  increase  of  weight  ob« 
taincd  from  the  various  kinds  of  food,  viz. : — 55  decalitres  of  peas 
gave  an  increase  of  22  stone  7  Ibs..  or  nearly  6  Ibs.  of  increase  of 
pork  from  1  decalitre  of  peas ;  whereas  from  boiled  carrots  only  28 
stone  2  Ibs.  of  increase  were  obtained  from  175  decalitres,  or  about 
2£  Ibs.  from  1  decalitre,  giving  the  advantage  over  the  peas  in  the 
ratio  of  2J-:  1.  The  next  most  nourishing  food  is  buckwheat,  which 
nearly  gives  4  Ibs.  of  pork  from  1  decalitre.  Boiled  potatoes  ar« 
next,  giving  nearly  3  Ibs.  of  pork  from  1  decalitre ;  and  the  lowest 
quantity  of  pork  is  that  obtained  from  the  balls  of  wheat,  which  is 
as  low  as  1  Ib.  from  1  decalitre.  Flour  would  no  doubt  fatten  bet 
ter  than  wheat,  especially  if  the  feeds  were  made  into  small  dry 
balls  of  dough,  and  frequently  administered. 

FRUITS. 

With  the  exception  of  the  acorn  we  have  seldom  a  sufficiently 
abundant  crop  of  fruit  of  any  kind  to  admit  of  our  making  it  an 
article  of  food  for  swine.  When  England  was  rich  in  forest  land, 
the  mastage  or  pannage  of  swine  in  these  localities  was  a  valuable 
privilege,  for  if  the  animals  did  not  absolutely  get  fat,  they  were 
kept  in  fair  condition  at  no  expense  to  the  owner  beyond  that  of  pay- 
ing a  person  to  look  after  them. 

Hogs  will  eat  the  acorns  and  beech-mast  greedily,  and  certainly 
thrive  to  a  certain  extent  on  this  food,  so  far  that  it  is  an  easy 
matter  to  fatten  them  afterwards.  Parkinson  says : — "  When  I 
lived  with  my  father,  acorns  were  so  plentiful  in  the  woods  one 
year,  that  they  made  the  pigs  sufficiently  fat  for  bacon  without  any 
other  food.  The  flesh  was  equally  as  good  and  as  well-flavored  as 
that  of  other  animals  that  had  been  fed  on  beans  and  peas."  Acorns 
that  have  become  dry  in  the  sun  and  air  are  far  more  profitable 
than  those  which  are  fresh  fallen  and  green  ;  but  the  way  in  which 
they  may  be  most  advantageously  employed  is  to  bake  or  roast 
them,  and  then  crush  them,  and  either  boil  them  to  a  pulp,  or  pour 
boiling  water  upon  them  and  let  it  stand  until  cool ;  the  addition  of 
a  little  salt  makes  an  exceedingly  palatable  food,  which  the  animals 
greedily  suck  up,  and  which  tends  far  more  to  fatten  them  than  the 
raw  acorn  would. 

Beech-mast  eaten  alone  makes  the  fat  oily  and  impoverishes  the 
lean,  but  when  taken  in  conjunction  with  acorns  the  one  fruit  quali- 
fies the  other,  and  the  combined  effect  is  good. 

In  many  parts  of  the  Continent  where  chestnuts  are  grown  in 
large  quantities  they  constitute  a  considerable  item  in  the  feeding  of 
swine,  and  are  exceedingly  nutritious,  especially  when  given  at  the 
latter  part  of  the  fattening  process.  They  impart  firmnesu  and  a 
delicate  flavor  to  the  meat.  Few  persons  give  chestnuts  in  a  rav 


FEEDING.  183 

state ;  they  are  cither  roasted  in  an  oven  or  macerated  in  boiling 
water.  The  same  reason  may  be  given  here  as  will  apply  to  all 
kinds  of  roots  and  fruits,  not  only  when  used  as  food  for  swine,  but 
also  for  other  animals,  and  even  for  the  human  being ;  they  are 
rendered  more  digestible  by  cooking,  divested  of  their  crudeness, 
and  thus  better  calculated  to  nourish  the  system  without  fatiguing 
or  disordering  its  powers.  Besides  which  there  is  a  decided  saving 
effected.  Some  even  go  so  far  as  to  calculate  that  cooked,  or 
ground,  or  bruised  food,  goes  as  far  again  as  that  which  is  given  in 
its  natural  state  or  merely  cut  up. 

In  America,  where  there  is  an  abundance  of  apples  and  pump- 
kins, these  fruits  are  given  to  swine  :  we  quote  an  account  related 
by  a  great  breeder  of  these  animals,  who  attaches  much  value  to 
these  two  articles  of  food,  which  seems  to  testify  their  utility : — 

"  On  the  10th  of  October  twenty  swine  were  put  up  to  fatten,  all 
of  which  were  only  in  middling  store  order,  in  consequence  of 
the  scarcity  of  feed.  The  cows  producing  very  little  wash  from  the 
dairy,  and  the  crop  of  apples  being  scanty  this  season,  nothing  had 
been  given  them  during  summer  but  a  small  orchard  containing 
one  acre  and  a-half  of  land  (with  the  premature  apples  which  fell,) 
in  which  was  a  pond  of  water,  a  very  essential  requisite  to  hogs,  and 
one  to  which,  under  the  powerful  influence  of  the  sun,  they  will  re- 
sort for  their  chief  comfort. 

"  The  above  twenty  swine  were  divided  into  three  lots  and  closely 
confined ;  we  proceeded  to  fatten  them  by  steaming  4  bushels  of 
small  potatoes,  12  bushels  of  apple  pomace,  4  bushels  of  pumpkins, 
and  1  cwt.  of  buckwheat  cornel,  adding  a  little  salt,  the  whole  being 
well  incorporated  together  while  hot  from  the  steamer,  with  a 
wooden  pounder,  and  suffered  to  undergo  fermentation  before  it  was 
ased  as  food :  they  were  at  the  same  time  supplied  with  plenty  of 
'jharcoal  and  pure  water.  While  feeding  them  with  the  first  steamer 
of  the  compound,  a  more  than  ordinary  moisture  was  observed  on 
their  litter,  which  was  occasioned  by  urine  :  a  knowledge  of  animal 
nature  convinced  the  owner  that  any  more  than  an  ordinary  flow 
would  weaken  the  system,  and  retard  the  progress  of  fattening ;  and 
ne  attributed  this  evil  to  the  steamed  pumpkins  acting  as  a  diu- 
retic, stimulating  the  kidneys  and  increasing  the  evacuation  of  urine. 
In  the  next  steamer,  therefore,  4  bushels  of  ruta-baga  were  substi- 
tuted for  the  pumpkins,  which  had  the  desired  effect.  This  expe- 
riment afforded  proof  that  a  mixture  thus  compounded  contains  a 
large  mass  of  nutritive  material  ready  prepared  for  the  action  of 
the  stomach,  and  therefore  producing  flesh  more  rapidly  than  any 
other  combination  of  food  made  use  of.  All  the  waste  apples 
being  used  up,  and  there  being  a  greater  quantity  of  soft  corn  on 
hand  than  usual,  that  was  given  to  the  hogs,  but  instead  of  their 
condition  improving  they  fell  off,  and  the  owner  was  under  th« 


184  THE  HOG. 

necessity  of  procuring  two  loads  of  apple  pomace  from  his  neigh- 
bors, and  commencing  the  steaming  and  feeding  again;  it  was 
continued  with  the  same  good  effect  until  eight  days  before  the 
animals  were  killed,  during  which  latter  period  they  were  fed  with 
sound  corn  ;*  they  were  slaughtered  on  the  1st  of  December.  The 
expense  of  fattening  and  the  produce  of  pork  were  as  follow*  — 

Dr.  Dolls.  Cts. 

32  bushels  of  small  potatoes,  at  25  cts.    .        .         .8  00 

32  bushels  of  ruta-baga,  including  pumpkins,  at  25  cts.     8  00 

10  bushels  of  soft  corn,  at  50  cts.  .        .         .         5  00 

10  cwt.  of  buckwheat*  at  $1  per  cwt      ...        10  00 

20  bushels  of  sound  corn,  at  80  cts.    v  *•;     **-'  .£••       16  00 

47         25 

Cr.  Dolls.    Cts. 

By  40  cwt.  of  pork,  at  $7i  per  cwt.    .        300       00 
Deduct  expense,        ....         47        00 


Balance,     ^;  '~'Vw       252        75." 

It  is  true  that  we  have  not  often  a  superabundance  of  apples ;  but 
still  in  years  when  the  crop  is  plentiful,  the  windfalls,  diseased  or 
injured  apples,  and  the  refuse  left  after  the  making  of  cider,  may  be 
given  to  the  pigs,  and  will  prove  a  fair  substitute  for  more  expensive 
food,  if  not  in  itself  peculiarly  advantageous ;  especially  when  eco- 
nomy in  the  keep  is  more  studied  than  a  rapid  system  of  fattening. 

Nuts  should  never  be  given  to  swine ;  they  make  the  fat  soft  and 
greasy,  and  impart  a  sweet,  unpleasant  flavor  to  the  flesh.  Pigs  are, 
however,  exceedingly  fond  of  them;  so  much  so,  that  when  they  can 
get  nuts  they  care  little  to  touch  any  other  kind  of  food. 

GRAIN. 

There  is  nothing  so  nutritious,  so  eminently  and  in  every  way 
adapted  for  the  purpose  of  fattening,  as  are  the  various  kinds  of 
grain ;  the  only  drawback  is  that  they  are  too  expensive  to  be  used 
to  any  great  extent  for  this  purpose,  otherwise  no  animal  should 
be  considered  as  properly  fattened  unless  some  kind  of  grain  had 
been  given  during  the  latter  part  of  the  time ;  as  nothing  tends  more 
to  create  a  firmness  as  well  as  delicacy  in  the  flesh.  It  has  been 
calculated  that  for  every  bushel,  half  of  peas,  and  half  of  barley, 
that  a  hog  eats,  it  gains  from  nine  to  ten  or  eleven  pounds  of  flesh. 

Two  pigs  of  about  eight  months  old,  were  purchased  and  put  up 
to  fatten  on  the  23d  of  December,  1834;  they  then  weighed  316 
Ibs.  They  were  put  into  a  warm  sty  and  fed  on  rye  and  corn-meal, 
having  three  regular  feeds  per  diern,  of  two  quarts  each,  up  to  the 
following  October,  when  they  received  three  quarts  at  each  feed,  OJ 


FEEDING.  185 

nine  quarts  a-day  for  about  a  month.  From  that  time  until  the  7th 
of  December,  1835,  a  period  of  five  weeks,  their  feeds  were  raised 
another  quart,  making  now  twelve  quarts  a-day.  Besides  this  they 
had  the  refuse  of  the  milk  of  two  cows,  and  occasionally  a  very 
little  green  meat.  When  slaughtered,  they  weighed  1134  Ibs.,  which, 
allowing  for  one-third  of  offal,  will  amount  to  the  gain  of  about  3£ 
Ibs.  of  live  weight  per  day.  They  ate  in  the  whole,  fifty  bushels 
of  rye  and  corn  ground ;  in  cold  weather  it  was  scalded  and  given 
to  them  warm,  and  in  the  summer,  put  into  the  trough  and  milk 
poured  upon  it.  (The  Cultivator,  vol.  ii.) 

There  are  also  repeated  instances  in  which  the  animals  have  in 
creased  in  weight  2  Ibs.,  2£  Ibs.,  and  even  3  Ibs.  a  day,  while  fed  on 
barley -meal  only,  or  barley-meal  and  peas,  or  potatoes ;  the  relative 
prices,  however,  of  grain  and  pork  will  always  decide  the  question 
of  the  advantage  of  this  mode  of  feeding  far  better  than  volumes  of 
experiments  or  comments. 

Barley  and  oats  are  considered  to  be  best  adapted  for  fattening 
swine.  Some  persons  give  the  preference  to  oats,  and  where  the 
grain  is  given  whole  they  certainly  are  more  digestible  and  less 
heating ;  but  ground  barley  or  barley  meal  is  universally  allowed  to 
be  the  most  nutritious  of  all  food. 

There  are  various  ways  of  giving  grain  to  swine : — Raw  and  dry, 
roasted  or  malted,  bruised  and  macerated,  boiled,  green,  and  growey 
or  germinating  wheat ;  and,  lastly,  ground  to  mea'l  or  farina.  Of 
these  the  first  two  are  the  least  advantageous,  as  the  grain  is  then 
often  but  imperfectly  masticated,  and  consequently  produces  indi- 
gestion. Wherever  it  is  thus  given  the  animals  must  be  well  sup- 
plied with  water.  A  little  whole  grain  given  once  a-day,  or  every 
other  day,  to  pigs  fed  on  barleymeal,  is  considered  to  be  beneficial 
and  add  to  the  firmness  of  the  flesh. 

Macerated  grain  is  better,  or  rather  would  be  if  the  animals  would 
eat  it  freely,  which  they  seldom  will  do.  Its  fattening  properties  are 
increased  if,  after  maceration,  it  is  suffered  to  lie  and  germinate,  and 
then  dried  or  malted ;  or  left  to  stand  in  the  water  until  the  whole 
turns  sour. 

Many  persons  consider  that  grain  boiled  until  the  husk  'bursts  is 
better  adapted  for  feeding  swine  in  this  form  than  when  ground,  and 
is  likewise  more  economical ;  the  only  difference,  however,  in  this 
latter  respect,  will  depend  upon  whether  the  expense  of  having  it 
ground  be  greater  or  less  than  that  of  the  fuel  necessary  to  boil  it. 

It  is  our  opinion  that  the  best,  most  economical  and  advantageous 
form  in  which  grain  can  be  used,  is  that  of  meal  moistened  with 
water,  whey  or  sour  or  skim-milk,'  into  a  kind  of  soup  or  porridge. 
The  fluid,  whatever  it  may  be,  which  is  in  the  first  place  poured  upon 
it,  should  never  be  more  than  lukewarm,  and  had  better  be  quite 
oold ;  hot  or  boiling  liquid  will  cause  the  meal  to  conglomerate  into 


186  THE  HOG. 

lumps  of  paste,  not  easily  dissolved,  and  very  likely  to  bring  on  in 
digestion.  The  Rev.  Arthur  Young,  in  his  work  on  fattening  cattle 
and  swine,  gives  the  following  directions  as  to  the  best  method  of 
employing  this  kind  of  food  : — "The  most  profitable  method  of  con. 
verting  corn  of  any  kind  into  food  for  hogs,  is  to  grind  it  into  meal, 
and  mix  this  with  water  in  cisterns,  in  the  proportion  of  five  bushels 
of  meal  to  one  hundred  gallons  of  water;  stir  it  well  several  times 
a-day,  for  three  weeks  in  cold  weather,  or  for  a  fortnight  in  a  warmer 
season,  by  which  it  will  have  fermented  well  and  become  acid,  till 
which  time  it  is  not  ready  to  give.  It  should  be  stirred  immediately 
before  feeding.  Two  or  three  cisterns  should  be  kept  fermenting  in 
succession,  that  no  necessity  may  occur  of  giving  it  not  duly  pre- 
pared. The  difference  in  profit  between  feeding  in  this  manner,  and 
giving  the  grain  whole,  is  very  great,  so  great  that  whoever  tries  it 
once  will  not  be  apt  to  change  it  for  the  common  method." 

Thaer  informs  us  that  ground  corn  or  coarse  meal  made  into  sour 
dough  (by  mixing  the  farina  or  meal  with  warm  water  and  a  little 
yeast,  and  then  suffering  it  to  stand  in  a  high  temperature  until  it 
turns  sour,  which  it  will  do  in  the  course  of  a  day,)  is  a  better  and 
more  profitable  mode  of  feeding  swine  on  grain  than  any  other.  A 
portion  of  the  sour  dough  is  then  softened  with  water  and  given  to 
the  pigs,  with  a  small  portion  of  ground  corn  or  barley  meal  stirred 
up  in  it.  The  animals  relish  this  food  exceedingly,  and  thrive  rapidly 
upon  it ;  but  if  the  dough  is  given  alone,  although  they  seem  to 
make  flesh  as  quickly,  the  meat  is  flabby  and  the  fat  porous.  Peas 
might  be  added  instead  of  the  farina  or  meal,  or  a  little  whole  barley 
or  oats.  \v  . 

The  same  author  likewise  says  : — "  Some  persons  appears  to  be 
exceedingly  successful  in  fattening  their  pigs  on  bread  made  of 
coarse  rye  or  barleymeal.  They  cut  this  bread  in  pieces,  dry  it  in 
an  oven,  then  soak  it  in  water,  mash  it,  and  give  it  to  the  animals  in 
the  form  of  porridge.  Where  sour  milk  or  whey  can  be  substituted 
for  water,  this  food  is  said  to  surpass  all  others  for  quickness  and 
efficacy  in  fattening,  and  for  the  goodness  of  the  flesh  and  fat  it 
produces." 

Indian  corn  has  latterly  been  employed  in  England  with  great 
success  in  feeding  swine,  and  that  it  is  highly  nutritive  and  well 
adapted  for  the  purpose  there  can  be  no  question;  here,  as  in  most 
cases,  the  price  will  in  a  great  measure  decide  the  advantage  or  non- 
advantage  of  using  it. 

Maize  is  equal  if  not  superior  to  any  kind  of  grain  for  fattening, 
and  is  extensively  used  on  the  Continent,  in  Europe,  and  in  America, 
where  this  article  can  readily  be  obtained.  The  best  way  is  to  give 
it  quite  at  the  latter  end  of  the  fattening  period  in  small  quantities 
as  a  handful  or  a  few  ears.  It  may  be  given  in  its  natural  state,  as 
pigs  are  so  fond  of  it  that  they  will  eat  up  every  seed.  The  pork 


SOILING  AND  PASTURING  SWINE.  187 

and  bacon  of  animals  that  have  been  th?is  fed  is  peculiarly  firm  and 
solid. 

Rice  is  another  valuable  adjunct  in  fattening  swine  ;  we  will  quote 
in  support  of  its  properties  the  following  account,  given  by  an 
amateur  pig-breeder : — 

"  We  purchased  from  the  government  stores  several  tons  of  dam- 
aged rice  at  a  very  cheap  rate ;  with  this  we  fattened  our  pigs,  and 
such  pork  I  never  saw  before  or  since ;  the  fat  was  as  firm  and  solid 
as  the  lean,  and  the  flavor  of  the  meat  very  superior. 

"  The  way  in  which  the  rice  was  prepared  for  food  was  as  follows : 
My  copper  held  forty  gallons  ;  in  the  afternoon  it  was  filled  or  nearly 
so,  with  water ;  as  soon  as  the  water  boiled,  the  fire  was  raked 
out,  two  pails  of  rice  immersed  in  the  water,  and  the  whole  covered 
closely  down  and  left  to  stand  until  the  morning.  On  the  following 
day  the  copper  was  emptied  of  its  contents,  which  consisted  of  a  thick 
jelly,  so  firm  as  only  to  be  taken  out  with  a  shovel ;  and  on  these 
contents  the  pigs  were  fed.  The  effect  was  perfect. 

"As  to  the  economy  of  the  plan,  that  of  course  must  be  a  matter 
dependent  upon  circumstances ;  we  found  it  more  profitable  than 
almost  any  other  kind  of  food  we  could  have  given,  from  the  price 
at  which  we  were  able  to  purchase  the  rice,  and  its  goodness.  From 
some  slight  experiments,  I  am  induced  to  think  that  equal  parts  of 
rice  jelly  and  mashed  potatoes  would  constitute  an  excellent  food.1' 

Another  person  who  tried  rice  as  a  food  for  pigs  put  up  two  weigh- 
ing 70  Ibs.  each,  and  fed  them  entirely  on  equal  parts  of  boiled  rice 
and  steamed  potatoes.  At  first  they  progressed  but  slowly,  but  event- 
tually  attained  the  weight  of  210  Ibs.  each.  Their  flesh  was 
fine  and  delicate,  the  fat  white  and  firm,  and  the  flavor  of  both  was 
excellent. 

Under  the  head  of  grain  some  writers  consider  beans,  peas, 
and  tares ;  we  have  already  spoken  of  the  first  two  when  treating  of 
vegetables,  and  given  it  as  our  opinion  that  pea-meal  is  little  if  at  all 
inferior  to  barley  and  oatmeal.  The  addition  of  a  few  dry  peas  to 
the  porridge  made  of  barleymeal  and  whey  is  advantageous ;  and 
many  persons  consider  good  pea-soup  to  be  equal  to  any  thing  in  its 
fattening  powers. 

Bran  or  pollard,  unmixed  with  any  farinaceous  particles,  conduces 
but  little  to  fatten  an  animal ;  it  has  been  considered  that  fermenta- 
tion will  increase  and  develop  their  nutritive  properties,  but  we 
should  be  sorry  to  be  compelled  to  rely  solely  on  either  of  these 
two  substances. 

SOILING    AND    PASTURING    SWINE. 

We  have  already  spoken  of  the  advantage  of  a  run  at  grass  to 
swine  of  all  ages,  and  permanent  pastures  are  those  best  adapted  to 


188  THE  HOG. 

this  purpose.  Soiling,  or  feeding  pigs  on  cut  green  meat,  has  also  its 
advantages,  and  is  very  much  practised  wherever  there  are  crops 
and  facilities  for  so  doing.  The  best  artificial  grasses  and  green  meat 
for  swine  are  clover,  lucerne,  chicory,  sainfoin,  vetches,  tares,  and 
bean  and  pea-haulm.  Some  persons  feed  their  swine  on  these  matters 
in  the  fields ;  but  it  is  a  far  better  practice  to  turn  them  into  yards  or 
small  enclosures,  and  there  have  the  green  meat  brought  to  them,  as 
by  this  means  the  animals  are  not  able  to  wander  about  so  much, 
exhausting  their  strength,  and  feeding  in  a  desultory  manner,  but  are 
kept  quiet,  and  their  dung  more  concentrated,  especially  if  good 
litter  or  earth  is  laid  down  to  receive  and  absorb  it. 

This  feeding  on  greet:  meat  for  awhile  cools  and  purifies  the  blood, 
and  keeps  the  animals  in  fair  store  condition,  though  it  tends  but 
very  little  to  fatten  them  :  where  it  is  intended  that  it  shall  perform 
that  office  as  well,  it  must  not  be  simply  cut  green  from  the  field  and 
thrown  to  them,  but  chopped  up  small  and  salted,  and  mixed  with  the 
screenings  of  corn,  or  pollard,  or  meal,  or  roots,  and  moistened  with 
some  kind  of  wash  and  left  to  ferment. 

Clover,  hay,  or  dried  vetches  may  be  also  given  to  swine,  chopped 
up  small,  and  in  wash ;  the  former  with  undoubted  advantage,  for 
clover  and  lucerne  are  allowed  to  be  exceedingly  nutritive  to  swine ; 
but  many  persons  consider  vetches,  whether  green  or  dried,  as 
heating. 

ANIMAL    SUBSTANCES. 

There  cannot  be  a  doubt  but  that  these  are  highly  fattening  in  their 
nature,  and  also  that  swine,  being  somewhat  allied  to  the  carnivora, 
will  greedily  devour  them ;  but  the  question  is,  Do  they  not  tend  to 
make  the  flesh  strong  and  rank,  to  inflame  the  blood,  to  create  in  the 
animals  a  longing  for  more  of  such  food,  and  thus  lead  them  to 
destroy  fowls,  rabbits,  ducks,  and  even  the  litters  of  their  compan- 
ions ?  Many  will  give  blood,  entrails,  scraps  of  refuse  meat,  horse- 
flesh, and  such  like,  to  swine,  but  we  should  decidedly  discourage 
such  practices  ;  the  nearest  approach  to  animal  food  we  would  admit 
should  be  pot-liquor,  and  dairy  refuse.  Animal  food  is  bad  for  every 
kind  of  swine ;  and  tends  to  make  them  savage  and  feverish,  and 
often  lays  the  foundation  of  serious  inflammation  of  the  intestines. 

GENERAL  DIRECTIONS  FOR  FEEDING  AND  FATTENING. 

Regular  hours  of  feeding  rank  among  the  first  of  the  rules  which 
ought  to  be  observed ;  the  pigs  will  soon  learn  to  expect  their  meals 
at  certain  times,  and  the  stomach  will  be  ready  for  it ;  irregularity 
will  therefore  irritate  the  digestive  powers,  and  prevent  so  much 
benefit  being  derived  from  the  meal  when  it  does  come. 


DIRECTIONS  FOB  'FEEDING.  189 

Small  meals,  and  many  of  them,  are  preferable  to  few  and  larga 
ones,  for  swine  are  very  apt  to  gorge  and  over-eat  themselves,  or,  if 
any  be  left  in  the  trough,  to  return  to  it  by  fits  and  starts  until  it  is 
all  gone ;  in  both  cases  the  digestive  functions  are  impaired,  and  the 
process  is  not  fully  and  beneficially  performed.  The  best  remedy 
for  indigestion  is  to  let  the  animals  fast  for  four-and-twenty  hours, 
and  then  to  give  them  a  small  quantity  of  dry  food,  as  barley  or 
peas,  whole  and  salted,  and  let  them  fast  four  or  five  hours  more 
before  resuming  their  usual  food. 

Pigs  always  eat  more  when  first  put  up  to  fatten  than  they  do 
afterwards ;  therefore  the  most  nutritious  food  should  be  reserved 
until  they  are  getting  pretty  fat.  And  at  that  period  the  food  must 
be  varied,  for  the  appetite  being  diminished,  it  becomes  necessary  to 
excite  it  by  variety  ;  and,  besides,  the  same  aliment  constantly  given 
palls  upon  the  stomach,  and  is  incapable  of  supplying  in  itself  all 
the  various  kinds  of  nutriment  required  by  the  increased  and  altered 
state  of  the  body. 

It  will  be  found  advantageous  occasionally  to  mingle  a  little  sul 
phur  or  powdered  antimony  with  the  food  of  swine  put  up  to  fatten ; 
about  half  an  ounce  once  in  ten  days  will  usually  be  sufficient. 
These  medicines  tend  to  purify  the  blood,  facilitate  digestion,  and 
maintain  the  appetite. 

An  American  writer  states  that  he  has  found  gall-nuts,  bruised 
and  mingled  with  charcoal,  to  act  most  beneficially  on  the  health  of 
swine  while  being  fattened ;  and  also  recommends  that  they  should 
always  be  allowed  to  root  in  the  earth  of  a  small  yard  attached  to 
the  sty  each  day,  and,  if  they  will,  eat  some  of  the  earth,  which  will 
be  good  for  them.  An  intelligent  writer  in  the  "  Quarterly  Journal 
of  Agriculture"  states,  that  on  the  Duke  of  Montrose's  estate,  the 
pigs  have  ashes  and  cinders  given  them  occasionally  to  correct  the 
acidity  of  the  stomach;  and  that  they  are  frequently  turned  out  to 
a  piece  of  ground  sprinkled  with  lime,  which  they  root  in  and  eat ; 
or  else,  if  this  is  not  possible  on  account  of  the  weather,  a  little 
magnesia  is  now  and  then  mingled  in  the  milk.  These  simple  pre- 
cautions are  always  more  or  less  necessary  to  animals  that  are  highly 
fed  and  have  little  or  no  exercise,  and  we  should  recommend  them 
to  the  attention  of  all  owners  of  pigs. 

Cleanliness  is  another  indispensable  requisite.  There  is  no  idea  so 
utterly  without  foundation  as  the  common  one  "  that  pigs  love  dirt," 
and  that  these  animals  thrive  best  in  the  midst  of  filth.  We  will 
quote  one  anecdote  out  of  the  many  which  have  come  to  our  know 
ledge,  in  refutation  of  this  absurd  opinion : — "A  gentleman  in  Nor- 
folk  put  up  six  pigs  of  almost  exactly  equal  weight,  and  all  in  equal 
health,  to  fatten ;  treated  them,  with  one  exception,  all  exactly  the 
same,  and  fed  them  on  similar  food,  given  in  equal  quantities,  to 
each,  for  seven  weeks.  Three  of  these  pigs  were  left  to  shift  foi 


190  THE    HOG. 

themselves  so  far  as  cleanliness  went,  and  the  other  ihree  were  care- 
fully  curried,  brushed,  and  washed.  These  latter  consumed  in  the 
seven  weeks  less  food  by  five  bushels  than  the  other  three,  and  yet, 
when  killed,  weighed  more  by  32  Ibs.  on  the  average." 

It  should  be  the  duty  of  some  one  person  to  keep  the  skins  of  the 
pigs  put  up  to  fatten — indeed  we  would  rather  say,  of  all  the  pigs 
kept — perfectly  free  from  mud,  dust,  or  filth  of  any  kind ;  and  this 
will  best  be  done  by  taking  care  that  they  always  have  clear  water 
to  bathe  in  within  their  reach,  clean  litter  to  lie  upon,  are  occasion- 
ally combed  and  brushed,  and  that  the  sty  is  always  kept  free  from 
filth.  Nothing  is  so  likely  to  engender  lice  and  diseases  of  the  skin 
as  for  it  to  be  suffered  to  remain  in  a  dirty  state.  It  is  true  that  the 
maintenance  of  cleanliness  will  cost  some  trouble  and  expense,  but 
every  owner  of  pigs  will  best  consult  his  own  interests  by  attention 
to  this  point. 

The  best  period  for  fattening  pigs  is  the  autumn ;  then  almost 
every  kind  of  food  is  to  be  had  in  plenty,  as  well  as  in  perfection ; 
the  weather  is  neither  too  hot  nor  too  cold ;  and  the  humidity  gen- 
erally prevalent  at  this  season  acts  beneficially  upon  the  skin  and 
tissues,  and  as  it  were  lubricates  the  whole  animal  economy.  Besides, 
they  are  ready  to  be  slaughtered  at  the  period  when  this  can  be  done 
with  most  advantage ;  when  the  lowness  of  the  temperature  allows 
more  time,  and  consequently  enables  the  owner  to  turn  the  flesh  to 
the  greatest  advantage ;  whereas  in  hot  weather  the  meat  must  be 
salted  or  pickled,  eaten  or  disposed  of  immediately,  or  it  turns  off 
and  is  spoiled.  In  the  immediate  neighborhood  of  large  towns  alone 
will  it  be  found  advantageous  to  fatten  pigs  so  as  to  have  them  ready 
to  kill  in  the  summer;  there  the  prices  which  can  often  be  obtained 
may  compensate  the  dealer  for  the  difficulty  and  risk  he  undergoes ; 
but  even  the  facilities  afforded  by  railways  will  hardly  do  this  to 
those  who  reside  in  remote  localities,  as  here  the  expense  of  the 
transit  has  to  be  added  to  the  other  items,  and  the  risk  is  increased 
by  close  packing. 

The  best  kinds  of  food  for  fattening  pigs  are : 

Milk  or  whey  mixed  with  barley,  oat,  corn,  or  pea-meal,  or  with 
boiled  and  mashed  potatoes. 

Potatoes  and  rice ;  potatoes  and  meal  of  any  of  the  above  kinds, 
or  mashed  potatoes  and  whole  grain. 

Peas  given  whole,  or  crushed,  or  in  the  form  of  soup,  and  either 
alone  or  mixed  with  barley -meal  or  potatoes. 

Carrots  and  parsnips ;  and  especially  boiled  carrots,  which  some 
persons  consider  to  be  the  most  nutritious  and  fattening  food  that 
can  be  giver  to  swine. 

Pasturage  on  clover,  lucerne,  or  sainfoin,  or  a  run  in  the  stubble 
of  corn-fields  immediately  after  the  crop  has  been  cut  and  got  in. 


GENERAL  MANAGEMENT.  191 

Beet-root  and  rula  baga  are  good ;  but  should  only  be  given 
when  other  roots  cannot  be  easily  obtained. 

And  lastly,  grain  itself,  as  corn,  barley,  and  oats,  but  not  rye. 

An  American  correspondent  gives  the  following  recipe  for  "an 
exceeding  nutritious  food  for  hogs;"  but  it  is  one  which  circumstances 
will  not  often  permit  us  to  make  use  of: — "Boil  Irish  potatoes, 
pumpkins,  and  apples  until  they  are  soft ;  mash  them  all  together, 
taking  care  thoroughly  to  mix  and  incorporate  them,  and  add  a  little 
salt  to  the  compound ;  swine  will  be  found  to  relish  this  food  highly, 
and  thrive  uncommonly  well  upon  it." 

A  small  portion  of  salt  should  always  be  mingled  in  whatever 
food  is  given,  as  it  tends  to  stimulate  the  appetite  as  well  as  the  di- 
gestive functions ;  and  an  ample  supply  of  good  water  for  drinking 
be  kept  within  the  reach  of  every  animal. 

Indian  corn,  buckwheat,  rice  arid  maize,  may  doubtless  be  given 
with  advantage,  and  are  in  themselves  highly  nutritious  ;  but  they 
cannot  be  reckoned  as  among  the  kinds  of  food  generally  in  use,  as, 
unless  under  peculiar  circumstances,  they  are  too  expensive,  and  not 
always  to  be  obtained  at  all.  . 

Turnips,  cabbage,  lettuce,  and  beans,  are  not  so  much  adapted  for 
fattening  as  the  kinds  of  food  above  enumerated,  although  these 
matters  often  form  valuable  additions  to  the  keep  of  store-pigs. 

THE    REFUSE    OF    THE    SLAUGHTER-HOUSE. 

Martin  says :  "  The  hog  is  an  omnivorous  animal,  and  will  even 
greedily  devour  flesh  and  garbage ;  and  butchers,  and  even  others, 
are  in  the  habit  of  feeding  their  hogs  upon  blood,  entrails,  offal  meat, 
and  similar  matters.  It  is  a  disgusting  practice,  but,  besides  this,  it 
is  essentially  wrong ;  such  diet  renders  the  animal  savage  and  dan 
gerous, — a  child  accidentally  straying  within  the  reach  of  a  hog  thus 
fed,  would  be  by  no  means  safe  from  a  ferocious  assault ;  moreover, 
it  keeps  the  animal  in  a  state  of  feverish  excitement,  and  leads  to 
inflammatory  diseases. 

"Again,  as  it  respects  the  meat,  it  is  rank,  coarse,  and  scarcely 
wholesome.  Hogs  are  often  kept  in  knackers'  yards,  where  they 
revel  in  corruption.  What  must  their  flesh  be ! 

THE    REFUSE    OF    THE    KITCHEN. 

"  The  same  objections  do  not  apply  to  pot-liquor  or  kitchen  refuse^ 
for  although  there  is  a  good  portion  of  fat,  bits  of  meat  and  skin, 
and  the  liquor  in  which  meat  has  been  boiled,  still  it  has  been  cooked, 
and  is  mixed  with  the  peelings  of  potatoes,  carrots,  turnips,  cabbage- 
leaves,  bread,  milk,  &c.,  <fcc.,  and  forms  an  acceptable  mess. 


192  THE  HOG. 


.  THE  REFUSE  OF  THE  DAIRY. 

"  The  refuse  of  the  dairy  is  noted  for  its  importance,  both  in  the 
fattening  of  porkers  and  bacon-hogs.  The  very  term  of  *  dairy -fed 
poik'  conveys  an  idea  of  delicacy;  it  has  a  pleasant  sound.  We 
associate  it  with  the  idea  of  meat  pleasant  to  look  upon  and  deli- 
cious to  the  taste,  and  not  without  cause:  true  dairy-fed  pork  is 
indeed  a  luxury ;  it  causes  no  indigestion  and  sits  easily  on  the 
stomach. 

"  The  refuse  of  the  dairy  consists  of  butter-milk,  whey,  and  skim- 
milk  ;  and  these,  mixed  with  the  flour  of  steamed  potatoes,  Indian- 
corn,  pea-meal,  barley-meal,  &c.,  constitute  a  diet  of  the  most  nu- 
tritious quality  for  fattening.  Such  food,  however,  should  not  be 
administered  to  store  hogs ;  it  is  decidedly  a  fattening  diet,  and 
hogs  accustomed  to  it  do  not  thrive  well  when  it  is  withheld  and 
inferior  food  substituted.  No  one  indeed  would  think  of  supplying 
mere  store  hogs  with  such  luxurious  food.  On  this  diet  some  of 
the  fattest  porkers  of  thirteen,  fifteen,  or  twenty  weeks  old,  have 
been  reared,  as  well  as  bacon-hogs  under  the  age  of  one  year. 

THE    REFUSE    OF    THE    CORN-MILL. 

"  The  large  miller  finds  swine  a  profitable  stock.  The  very  sweep- 
ings of  the  mill  are  thus  made  by  the  miller  to  return  a  profit ;  he 
may  not  have  to  purchase  whey,  or  butter-milk,  or  skim-milk,  from 
the  farmer,  but  the  latter  has  to  purchase  barley-meal,  &c.,  from 
the  miller,  or  at  least  to  pay  him  for  grinding  it. 

THE    REFUSE    OF    THE    STARCH    MANUFACTORY. 

"Among  other  substances  available  for  swine  is  the  refuse  of  the 
ttarch  manufactory,  that  is,  of  the  grain  or  potatoes  used  in  the  pro- 
duction. It  is  said  to  be  extremely  nutritious,  the  animals  fattening 
on  it  with  great  rapidity,  and  yielding  very  firm  and  substantial 
bacon.  It  is  apt  to  cloy  the  appetite,  and  should  be  given  alternately 
with  food  of  a  different  quality ;  indeed,  in  all  cases,  alternation  of 
food  is  highly  desirable,  as  the  stomach  palls  upon  one  exclusive 
kind.  The  best  method  of  preserving  the  paste  deprived  of  the 
starch  is  to  dry  it.  As  is  evident,  it  can  only  be  employed  locally 
and  not  generally ;  it  is  said  to  be  far  superior  to  the  refuse  grains 
and  wash  of  the  brewery  or  distillery. 

THE    REFUSE    OF    THE    BREWERY    AND    DISTILLERY. 

"Hogs  are  usually  kept  in  considerable  numbers  by  the  proprietors 
of  large  breweries  and  distilleries ;  nevertheless  these  refuse  grains 


VEGETABLES.  19S 

and  wash  are  not  well  adapted  for  sound  fattening,  unless  mixed  or 
alternated  with  other  food,  as  pollard,  barley-meal,  .&c.  It  is  true 
that  the  animals  become  in  good  apparent  condition,  but  their  fat 
is  flabby,  and  does  not  swell  on  being  boiled,  as  the  fat  of  good 
bacon  ought  to  do. 

"  With  respect  to  the  refuse  of  the  distilleries,  especially  the  wash, 
it  ought  to  be  very  cautiously  given ;  if  allowed  too  liberally,  the 
animals  reel  from  intoxication,  until  they  are  accustomed  to  it,  and 
we  cannot  but  think  its  influence  upon  the  healthy  condition  of  the 
animals  to  be  injurious. 

"  This  wash  is  not  a  natural  food ;  it  is  not  one  which  they  will  at 
first  take  willingly,  nor  can  we  regard  it  as  beneficial ;  the  pigs  may 
indeed  become  bloated,  but  not  covered  with  firm  solid  fat ;  it  must 
impair  their  digestive  powers,  and  render  the  liver  torpid  and  per- 
haps swollen ;  mixed  with  water  and  barley-meal,  or  other  farina- 
ceous food,  it  may  be  admissible,  but  this  is  the  best  that  can  be 
said  of  it. 

GREEN  AND  DRIED  VEGETABLES. 

"There  are  many  vegetables  used  in  the  feeding  of  pigs,  amongst 
which  may  be  enumerated  clover,  sainfoin,  lucern,  chicory,  tares, 
vetches,  pea-haulm,  cabbages,  turnip-tops,  &c.;  it  is  desirable  that 
these,  when  given,  should  be  cut  up  small,  and  mixed  with  the  wash, 
— indeed,  simply  cut  up,  with  a  little  salt  scattered  among  it,  and 
occasionally  mixed  with  a  little  pollard,  it  constitutes  a  good  diet 
for  store  pigs,  where  the  aim  is  not  to  fatten  them,  but  to  keep 
them  in  fair  condition.  Indeed,  it  is  not  advisable  to  render  store 
pigs  too  fat  or  high  in  flesh ;  they  grow  larger,  and  their  symmetry 
is  better  developed,  by  moderate  diet  than  by  full  feeding,  and 
afterwards,  when  put  up  to  fatten  for  bacon,  they  thrive  rapidly  on 
the  increased  quantity  and  quality  of 'the  nutriment. 

"  Clover  or  lucern  hay,  cut  up  small  and  mixed  with  the  wash,  is 
also  recommended,  and,  where  it  is  practicable,  an  occasional  or  in- 
deed a  frequent  run  on  good  grass  lands  tends  to  the  advantage  of 
the  animals.  There  are  some  wild  plants,  as  the  sow-thistle  (son- 
ckus)  and  others,  of  which  swine  are  very  fond ;  yet  it  would  appear 
that  these  animals,  omnivorous  as  they  are,  are  choice  in  the  selec- 
tion of  their  vegetable  fare,  rejecting  many  plants  on  which  the 
horse,  ox,  sheep,  and  goat  will  feed  with  avidity.  It  is  remarkable 
that,  although  the  hog  will  champ  the  fresh  green  shells  of  peas,  it 
does  not  swallow  the  tough  inner  lining,  and  only  drains  away  the 
saccharine  juice,  rejecting  the  rest. 

BOOTS. 

"Among  the  roots  given  to  hogs  in  our  island,  potatoes  take  the  first 
place.  These  should  always  be  steamed  and  mashed,  and. mixed 


194  THE  HOG. 

with  whey  or  skimmed  milk,  with  the  addition  of  middlings,  barley* 
meal,  peas,  &c.  Hogs,  as  we  have  previously  intimated,  however 
apparently  well  fed  on  potatoes,  do  not  produce  firm  bacon  which 
swells  greatly  in  boiling.  Hence  potatoes  ought  to  form  a  portion 
only  of  their  diet,  nor  indeed  are  they  essentially  necessary.  In  the 
Channel  Islands  the  store  hogs  are  fattened  almost  entirely  upon 
boiled  parsnips,  and  they  attain  to  an  enormous  size,  yielding  good 
bacon.  Among  other  roots  we  may  mention  carrots,  turnips,  es- 
pecially Swedish  turnips,  and  beet-root.  All  these  roots  should  be 
boiled,  but  may  be  given  raw,  though  not  so  advantageously.  Car 
rots  are  highly  esteemed  by  many,  and  no  doubt  contain  a  conside- 
rable quantity  of  nutriment,  and  in  addition  to  meal  may  be  used 
with  advantage,  especially  when  potatoes  are  dear  and  scarce,  in 
consequence  of  a  general  failure  in  the  crops.  They  might,  even 
when  given  alone,  with  the  addition  of  whey,  or  butter-milk,  or  skim- 
milk,  make  the  animal  reasonably  fat,  as  in  the  instance  of  parsnip 
feeding,  but  we  should  doubt  whether  the  quality  of  the  bacon  would 
prove  first-rate. 

"  The  same  observations  apply  to  Swedish  turnips,  which  are  ex- 
tolled by  some  as  superior  to  potatoes. 

"  What  will  be  the  character  of  the  bacon  produced  by  such  diet  is 
another  thing ;  an  animal  may  be  made  fat,  but  the  fat  may  be  soft, 
oily,  and  waste  in  boiling. 

"  No  roots,  without  a  due  admixture  of  farinaceous  food,  as  pollard, 
barley-meal,  peas,  &c.,  will  produce  first-rate  bacon,  and  indeed  in 
the  finishing-off,  or  last  stage  of  feeding,  it  is  better  to  omit  the  roots 
altogether,  and  give  only  peas,  barley-meal,  whey,  &c.  The  same 
observations  apply  to  pork  ;  even  young  delicate  dairy -fed  pork  re- 
quires to  be  finished  off  on  a  mixture  of  farinaceous  food  with  the 
refuse  of  the  dairy,  in  order  that  the  meat  may  acquire  a  due  degree 
of  firmness.  In  this  respect,  as  well  as  in  age,  pork  differs  from  the 
sucking-pig ;  in  the  latter,  tenderness  and  succulency  are  in  the  ex- 
treme ;  they  render  the  young  creature,  when  well  cooked,  one  of 
the  most  delicate  of  *  all  the  delicacies.' 

GRAIN  AND  BEANS  AND  PEAS. 

"  To  dwell  upon  the  nutritive  qualities  of  grain  in  general  would  be 
useless.  The  value  of  barley-meal,  middlings,  mill-sweepings,  &c., 
in  the  feeding  of  hogs,  is  well  known.  It  is  true  that  this  food  is 
expensive,  but  then  it  is  not  used  exclusively  till  the  time  for  finish- 
ing off,  or  need  not  be ;  and,  what  is  more,  the  expense  is  repaid  by 
the  gain  of  the  animal  in  weight,  and  by  the  great  superiority  of  the 
meat,  which  will  command  its  price  in  the  market.  The  rapid  in- 
crease in  the  weight  of  hogs  fed  upon  barley-meal,  peas,  steamed 
potatoes,  with  whey  or  butter-milk,  is  astonishing.  They  have  been 


GRAIN.  195 

known  to  increase  at  the  rate  of  3£  Ibs.  (live  weight)  per  day,  and 
often  at  the  rate  of  2  or  1-J-  Ibs.  Here  is  some  remuneration  certainly 
for  extra  expense,  even  if  the  finishing  off  be  entirely  on  meal  and 
skim-milk. 

"  There  is  only  one  legitimate  way  of  giving  barley  and  that  is  in 
the  form  of  meal  made  into  porridge  with  lukewarm  milk,  whey,  or 
water,  to  which  potato-meal  may  be  added  or  not,  as  is  deemed 
desirable.  To  give  the  grain  in  a  raw  state,  or  even  bruised,  or  in- 
fused in  water  till  it  begins  to  swell  and  germinate,  is,  we  consider, 
very  disadvantageous ;  it  is,  in  fact,  attended  by  two  evils — in  the 
first  place,  the  greedy  animal  does  not  sufficiently  grind  down  the 
food  for  the  complete  extraction  of  all  its  nutriment ;  and,  secondly, 
semi-champed  grain  is  liable  to  produce  indigestion,  ]oss  of  appetite, 
and  fever.  The  same  effects  are  produced  by  mixing  the  meal  with 
boiling  fluid,  which  converts  it  into  a  sort  of  dough  or  paste,  very 
unfit  for  being  taken  into  the  stomach. 

"  Some  recommend  that  the  meal  be  mixed  with  cold  water  in  large 
cisterns,  the  proportion  being  five  bushels  of  meal  to  a  hundred  gal- 
lons of  water.  This  mixture  must  be  stirred  several  times  a-day, 
for  -a  fortnight  or  three  weeks,  until  an  imperfect  fermentation  takes 
place,  and  it  becomes  acescent.  In  this  state  its  fattening  powers 
are  said  to  be  greatly  increased  ;  but  the  ordinary  way  is  to  mix 
the  meal  with  lukewarm  water,  or  whey,  or  butter-milk  (pea-meal 
or  potato -flour  being  added  or  not),  and  give  it  in  the  form  of  a 
thick  soup  to  the  animals.  Next  to  barley-meal,  oat-meal  may  be 
ranked  in  order,  and  in  some  counties  it  is  largely  given.  It  may 
be  made  into  a  sort  of  thick  gruel  with  wash  or  whey,  &c.,  or  it  may 
be  mixed  with  water,  set  to  leaven,  and  given  in  an  acescent  state. 

"  Maize  takes  a  high  rank  among  the  grains  used  for  feeding  hogs. 
It  is  little,  if  at  all,  inferior  to  barley,  and  the  animals  are  very  fond 
of  it.  It  may  be  ground  into  meal,  or  given  in  its  natural  state, 
after  being  soaked  for  some  time  in  water,  either  alene,  or  in  a  wash, 
or  in  gruel.  In  many  parts  of  Europe,  and  in  America  especially, 
where  many  varieties  of  maize  or  Indian  corn  are  extensively  culti- 
vated, the  flesh  of  hogs,  and  also  poultry,  fed  upon  Indian  corn,  has 
a  peculiarly  fine  flavor. 

"  Occasionally  rice  has  been  used  for  fattening  hogs.  One  great 
objection  to  this  article  would  be  its  expense,  and  we  should  not 
think  it  equal  to  barley-meal,  although  it  abounds  in  nutriment. 
The  proper  way  to  prepare  it  is  to  put  the  rice  into  boiling  water 
(two  ordinary  pailsful  to  about  forty  gallons  of  water),  and  let  the 
whole  stand  for  several  hours  till  it  is  cold.  The  rice  will  then  be 
found  to  have  swelled  amazingly,  and  to  be  compacted  into  a  mass 
so  firm  as  to  admit  of  being  taken  out  by  means  of  a  shovel.  In 
this  state  it  may  be  given  to  the  hogs,  either  with  whey,  milk,  &c., 
or  by  itself;  a  certain  portion  of  potatoes  mashed  after  steaming 


196  THE  HOG. 

may  be  added.  The  flesh  of  hogs  fed  on  rice  is  said  to  have  proved 
very  superior.  Peas  and  beans,  either  in  their  green  state,  or  dried 
and  bruised,  or  ground  into  meal,  are  among  the  best  articles  of  food 
for  fattening  swine.  Pea-meal,  or  the  meal  of  the  gray  pea,  or  gray 
peas  bruised,  are  in  the  highest  esteem.  Pea-meal  may  be  given 
fclone,  or  added  to  the  barley-meal,  or  to  the  steamed  potatoes. 

"Buckwheat  is  excellent  for  fattening  hogs.  With  respect  to  rye 
little  need  be  said ;  occasionally  hogs  are  fed  upon  rye-meal. 

SEEDS    OF   VARIOUS    VEGETABLES,  FRUITS,  &C. 

"Linseed  cake,  or  oil-cake  as  it  is  called,  is  occasionally  given  to 
hogs,  and  sometimes  linseed  meal,  or  steeped  linseed,  but  only  in 
small  quantities,  and  in  addition  to  food  destitute  of  oil,  as  potatoes, 
pea-meal,  &c.  Oil-cake  is  used  largely  in  the  fattening  of  horned 
cattle,  but  whether  it  is  equally  advantageous  in  the  fattening  of 
hogs  is  not  very  clear. 

"Beechmast  is  eagerly  devoured  by  hogs,  and  in  places  where  this 
is  abundant,  it  will  be  well  to  turn  store  hogs  into  it,  or  collect  it 
for  their  use.  It  ie  an  article  of  diet  not  to  be  despised,  but  as  an 
adjunct  and  not  a  principal  article.  But  though  hogs  thrive  on  this 
food,  it  will  not  make  firm  fat,  unless  largely  mixed  with  acorns. 

"A  run  in  oak  copses  ought  not  to  be  neglected  at  the  time  of  the 
fall,  by  a  farmer  who  has  the  opportunity  of  sending  his  store  hogs 
into  the  wood. 

"  In  England,  chestnuts,  as  food  for  hogs,  are  out  of  the  question. 
This  is  not  the  case,  however,  in  many  parts  of  the  Continent,  where 
these  are  abundant,  and  indeed  where  they  form  portions  of  woods. 
There  the  chestnut  tree  affords  an  abundant  supply,  both  for  men 
and  swine,  and  the  latter  are  bountifully  supplied  with  it ;  it  is  sel- 
dom given  raw,  but  roasted  or  steamed,  or  parboiled  into  a  pulp, 
then  crushed  and  divested  of  the  outer  shell.  By  the  conversion  of 
it  into  a  potato-like  meal,  the  nutritive  qualities  of  this  fruit  are 
greatly  improved,  and  it  is  thereby  better  fitted  for  the  digestive 
action  of  the  stomach. 

"  With  respect  to  apples,  pumpkins,  and  even  peaches,  which  in 
some  parts  of  America  are  lavishly  given  to  swine,  we  have  little  to 
say.  Boiled  apples  mixed  with  potatoes,  Indian-corn  flour,  or  buck- 
wheat, will  no  doubt  prove  nutritious,  and  in  America  constitute  a 
cheap  diet,  but  the  case  is  different  in  England.  In  North  Africa 
the  wild-boar  makes  incursions  into  the  melon-grounds,  and  we  can 
conceive  that  melons,  abounding  with  saccharine  matter,  are  grateful 
to  the  palate  of  the  wild  hog,  and  so  no  doubt  are  apples,  pumpkins, 
and  peaches,  but  they  do  not  enter  into  the  English  bill  of  fare  for 
hogs.  At  the  same  time,  we  object  not  to  the  plan  of  turning  hogs 
into  apple  orchards  in  order  that  they  may  pick  up  the  fallen  fruit. 


CONSTRUCTION    OF   PIGGERIES,  197 

"We  may  here  notice  a  few  other  articles  which  do  not  come  under 
any  precise  head.  One  of  these  is  hay-tea,  or  rather  an  infusion  of 
clover,  sainfoin,  or  lucern  hay,  which  is  by  many  recommended  as  an 
excellent  vehicle  for  mixing  with  other  food.  It  may  be  thickened 
with  potato-flour,  steamed  carrots,  boiled  cabbages,  barley  or  oat- 
meal, anc  for  store  hogs,  in  particular,  it  is  said  to  be  excellent,  not 
only  as  keeping  the  animals  in  first-rate  condition,  but  as  saving 
more  expensive  kinds  of  food  which  must  otherwise  be  given. 

"  Another  article  is  salt.  Salt  is  almost  essential  to  health  ;  it 
stimulates  the  appetite,  it  aids  the  operation  of  digestion,  and  all  cat- 
tle are  partial  to  it.  A  little  salt  should,  therefore,  be  scattered  into 
the  food  before  it  is  given  to  the  animal. 

"  We  must  not  here  exclude  earth  or  calcareous  matters  from  our 
consideration.  With  the  roots  which  a  hog  ploughs  up  in  the  ground 
and  devours,  a  small  quantity  of  earth  is  necessarily  swallowed,  the 
calcareous  particles  of  which  act  beneficially  by  correcting  any  acid- 
ity in  the  stomach.  Hogs  put  up  to  fatten,  highly  fed,  and  taking 
little  or  no  exercise,  are  very  liable  to  acidity  of  the  stomach,  and  loss 
of  appetite  as  a  consequence.  Many  breeders,  aware  of  this,  give  the 
animals  occasionally  ashes  or  cinders,  which  they  champ  and  swallow; 
or  turn  them  out  now  and  then  upon  a  patch  of  ground,  over  which 
lime  or  chalk  has  been  freely  sprinkled,  in  which  they  root  and  pick 
up  morsels,  which,  with  the  lime  and  particles  of  earth,  are  swallowed. 
It  is  not  a  bad  plan  to  mix  occasionally  a  little  magnesia  or  chalk  in 
the  wash  or  milk;  this  will  very  effectually  correct  acidity.  Here 
then,  we  have  another  reason  why  a  run,  from  time  to  time,  in  the 
field  given  to  hogs  is  advisable ;  with  every  root,  every  pig-nut  that 
they  swallow,  they  take  in  a  portion  of  earth." 


CHAPTEK  XIII.  i^.d 

On  the  Proper  Construction  of  Piggeries— Ventilation— Description  of  Mr.  Henderson'*  Stye»— 
Cooking  Apparatus— Curious  Contrivance  for  Feeding  Pigs — Description  of  the  Piggery  at 
Prince  Albert's  Home  Farm — Description  of  a  Piggery  at  Lascoed — Advantages  of  Cleanli- 
ness—-Pig-keeping  in  Mexico. 

THERE  are  few  things  more  conducive  to  the  thriving  and  well- 
being  of  swine  than  airy,  spacious,  well-constructed  styes,  and,  above 
all,  cleanliness.  The  old  prejudices  —  that  any  place  was  good 
enough  to  keep  a  pig  in,  and  that  filth  and  pig-styes  were  synony- 
mous terms — are  now.  passed  away,  and  the  necessity  of  attention 
to  this  branch  of  porcine  economy  generally  recognized. 

Formerly  swine  were  too  often  housed  in  damp,  dirty,  close, 


198  1HE  HOO. 

imperfectly  built  sheds ;  this  was  an  error,  and  a  fruitful  source  of 
disease,  and  of  unthrifty  animals. 

In  large  establishments  where  numerous  pigs  are  kept,  there  should 
be  divisions  appropriated  to  all  the  different  kinds  of  pigs ;  the  males, 
the  breeding  sows,  the  newly  weaned,  and  the  fattening  pigs  should 
all  be  kept  separate ;  and  it  were  as  well  that  in  the  divisions  appro- 
priated  to  the  second  and  last  of  these  four  classes,  there  should  be 
a  distinct  apartment  for  each  animal,  all  opening  into  a  yard  or 
enclosure  of  limited  extent.  As  pigs  require  warmth,  these  build- 
ings should  face  the  south,  and  be  kept  weather-tight  and  well 
drained.  Good  ventilation  is  also  important,  for  it  is  needless  to 
expect  animals  to  make  good  flesh  and  retain  their  health  unless  they 
have  a  sufficiency  of  pure  air.  The  blood  requires  it  to  give  it 
vitality  and  free  it  from  impurities,  as  much  as  the  stomach  requires 
wholesome  and  strengthening  food,  and  when  it  has  it  not,  becomes 
vitiated,  and  impairs  all  the  animal  functions. 

"The  blood,  the  fountain  whence  the  spirits  flow, 
The  generous  stream  that  waters  every  part, 
And  motion,  vigor,  and  warm  life  conveys 
To  every  moving,  breathing  particle," 

becomes  contaminated  by  those  aerial  poisons  given  out  bv  the 
decaying  vegetable  matter,  rotten  or  damp  litter,  accumulations  of 
dung,  and  animal  exhalations  engendered  by  ill-ventilated  styes. 
These  noxious  gases  are  inhaled  by  the  breath,  and  absorbed  by  the 
skin,  until  they  enter  the  circulation,  and  impair  its  vivifying  fluid. 
It  is  by  the  action  of  the  atmospheric  air  that  venous  blood  is  con- 
verted into  arterial,  freed  from  all  its  impurities,  and  rendered  fit  to 
sustain  all  the  vital  functions ;  hence  it  must  be  at  once  evident  that 
if  this  important  agent  is  in  the  first  place  contaminated,  its  action 
must  be  impaired  and  its  effects  empoisoned.  Besides,  bad  smells 
and  exhalations  injure  the  flavor  of  the  meat. 

Damp  and  cold  floors  should  also  be  guarded  against,  as  they  tend 
to  induce  cramp  and  diarrhoea ;  and  the  roof  so  contrived  as  to  carry 
off  the  wet  from  the  pigs. 

The  walls  of  a  well-constructed  sty  should  be  of  solid  masonry  ; 
the  roof  sloping,  and  furnished  with  spouts  to  carry  off*  the  rain ; 
the  floors  either  slightly  inclined  towards  a  gutter  made  to  carry  off* 
the  rain,  or  else  raised  from  the  ground  on  beams  or  joists,  and  per- 
forated so  that  alt  urine  and  moisture  shall  drain  off.  Bricks  and 
tiles  are  much  used  for  the  flooring  of  styes,  but  are  objectionable, 
because,  however  well  covered  with  litter,  they  still  strike  cold ; 
wood  is  far  superior  in  this  respect ;  as  well  as  because  it  admits  of 
those  clefts  or  perforations  being  made  which  we  have  just  recom- 
mended, and  which  not  only  serve  to  drain  off  all  moisture,  but 
•drait  fresh  air  as  well.  The  value  of  the  litter  and  dung  aa 


CONTRIVANCES  FOR  FEEDING.          199 

manure,  must  always  be  borne  in  mind,  and  all  things  no  arranged 
that  none  of  it  shall  be  wasted. 

The  door  of  each  sty  ought  to  be  so  hung  that  it  will  open  inwards 
or  outwards,  so  as  to  give  the  animals  free  ingress  and  egress ;  and 
to  do  this  it  should  be  hung  across  from  side  to  side,  and  the  animal 
push  it  up  to  effect  its  entry  or  exit  ;  for  if  it  were  hung  in  the  usual 
way  it  would  derange  the  litter  every  time  it  opened  inwards,  and 
be  very  liable  to  hitch.  If  it  is  not  intended  that  the  pigs  shall  leave 
their  sty,  there  should  be  an  upper  and  lower  door,  the  former  of 
which  should  always  be  left  open  when  the  weather  is  warm  and 
dry,  while  the  latter  will  serve  to  confine  the  animal. 

There  should  also  be  windows  or  slides  which  can  be  opened  01 
closed  at  will,  to  give  admission  to  the  fresh  air,  or  exclude  rain  ol 
cold. 

Mr.  Henderson's  description  of  his  styes  is  more  lucid  and  practical 
than  mere  vague  directions,  we  will  therefore  give  it  in  his  owr 
words  : — "  The  plan  which  I  recommend  is  as  follows.  Have  a  hous<\ 
thirty  feet  by  fifteen,  with  four  doors  all  opening  outwards,  and  three 
partition  walls  through  the  house,  viz.,  a  wall  between  each  of  the. 
doors,  dividing  the  house  into  four  compartments.  The  two  middle 
ones  I  use  for  eating-rooms,  and  the  others  for  sleeping-apartments, 
having  an  inner  door  between  each  eating  and  sleeping-apartment. 
By  this  plan  the  keeper  is  enabled  to  get  the  eating-chambers  swept 
out,  the  troughs  cleaned,  and  the  food  put  into  them  without  dis- 
turbing the  swine  or  being  disturbed  by  them.  There  should  be  a 
division  wall  having  a  door  in  it  through  each  sleeping-apartment  j 
in  the  hinder  part  should  be  the  litter ;  and  the  front  and  srnallei 
compartment,  through  which  the  animals  must  pass  to  get  to  their 
food,  may  be  used  by  them  as  a  kind  of  necessary,  for  these  animals 
will  never  defile  their  beds  if  they  can  avoid  it. 

"  The  following  is  the  most  convenient  manger  for  their  food.  Let 
it  be  as  long  as  the  house  is  wide,  and  fixed  against  the  middle  wall ; 
in  form  similar  to  a  horse  manger,  but  not  so  deep,  and  it  must  be 
divided  into  twelve  divisions  by  partition  boards  four  feet  in  length 
or  height,  and  a  little  broader  than  the  manger  is  wide ;  thus  a  num- 
ber will  feed  as  well  and  as  quietly  together  as  two  or  three.  Be- 
fore  every  meal  the  trough  should  be  well  washed  and  the  place  swept, 
and  once  in  the  day  a  little  fresh  litter  placed  in  the  sleeping-cham- 
bers. Each  of  these  sleeping  and  eating-rooms  may  be  temporarily 
divided  into  two,  should  it  be  requisite.  The  sleeping-rooms  should 
be  dark,  as  animals  fatten  much  more  rapidly  when  they  lie  down 
and  sleep  after  each  meal  than  they  do  when  they  wander  about. 
There  should  be  a  square  yard  to  each  piggery,  well  paved  and 
drained,  as  should  the  styes  also  be ;  and  where  it  is  possible,  an 
enclosure  or  a  small  piece  of  ground  adjoining  is  exceedingly  useful, 
"  Those  who  have  space  to  admit  of  it  will  find  it  advantageous  to 


200  THE   HOG. 

have  five  apartments  instead  of  four,  and  in  the  fifth  or  central  one 
to  have  a  boiler  to  prepare  the  food,  and  chests  and  lockers  to  eon- 
tain  the  various  stores." 

Parkinson  advises  that  in  the  yard  or  enclosure  before  every  pig- 
gery should  be  a  "  rubbing-post,  or,  what  is  still  more  beneficial,  two 
posts  having  a  pole  between  them  similar  to  a  horse's  leaping-bar,  but 
not  revolving;  this  pole  should  be  raised  or  let  down  to  the  height 
of  the  pigs,  as  the  rubbing  of  the  animals  against  it  causes  a  freer  cir- 
culation of  blood,  the  same  as  the  flesh-brush  does  to  human  bodies." 

In  all  large  establishments  there  should  be  a  proper  apparatus  for 
cooking,  mixing,  and  preserving  the  food.  For  this  a  boiler  and 
steamer  will  be  requisite,  and  some  two  or  three  tanks  which  may 
be  made  of  bricks  plastered  over  on  the  interior  to  prevent  leakage, 
and  fixed  in  the  ground.  Wherever  it  can  be  managed,  the  troughs 
should  be  so  situated  that  they  can  be  filled  and  cleaned  from  the 
exterior  without  interfering  with  or  disturbing  the  animals  at  all,  and 
for  this  purpose,  the  following  very  simple  contrivance  has  been 
recommended : — "  Have  a  flap  or  door  with  swinging  hinges  made 
to  hang  horizontally  over  the  trough,  so  that  it  can  be  moved  to  and 
fro,  and  alternately  be  fastened  by  a  bolt  to  the  inside  or  outside  of 
the  manger.  When  the  hogs  have  fed  sufficiently,  the  door  is  swung 
inwards  and  fastened,  and  so  remains  until  feeding-time,  when  the 
trough  is  cleaned  and  refilled  without  any  trouble,  and  then  the  flap 
drawn  back  and  the  animals  admitted  to  their  food."  Some  persons 
cover  the  trough  with  a  lid  having  as  many  holes  in  it  as  there  are 
pigs  to  eat  from  it.  This  is  by  no  means  a  bad  plan,  for  then  each 
pig  selects  his  own  hole  and  eats  away  without  interfering  with  or 
incommoding  his  neighbor. 

We  are  indebted  to  the  kindness  of  a  friend  for  the  following  ac- 
count of  the  Royal  piggery,  at  the  Home  Farm  at  Windsor.  It 
consists  of  an  oblong  slated  shed,  of  sufficient  length  and  breadth  to 
contain  about  two  dozen  sties,  of  somewhat  larger  dimensions  than 
ordinary  pig-sties,  and  arranged  in  two  rows  with  a  broad  walk  be- 
tween them,  from  which  the  spectator  looks  into  the  sties  on  the 
right  and  left  of  him.  Each  sty  has  an  in-door  and  an  out-door 
apartment,  the  former  having  a  wooden  coverlid  to  it,  going  upon 
hinges  like  the  lid  of  a  cornbin,  instead  of  a  roof,  which  may  be  raised 
to  any  height  in  hot  or  close  weather,  so  as  to  admit  any  influx  of  air 
required,  or  even  be  thrown  back  if  necessary.  The  sties  are  paved 
with  brick,  both  within  and  without,  doors,  and  their  floors  slightly 
declivitous. 

The  following  is  a  description  of  a  piggery  at  Lascoed  Pont  Senny, 
planned  and  executed  by  Mr.  J.  Donaldson,  land  steward  to  A.  M. 
Storley,  Esq.,  Brecon,  South  Wales  :•— This  piggery  is  constructed 
for  the  purpose  of  breeding  and  feeding  on  a  scale  to  suit  a  farm  of 
•ix  hundred  acres  of  turnip  soil  in  an  inland  situation,  where  conve- 


CONTRIVANCES  FOB  FEEDING. 

nient  markets  render  easy  the  disposal  both  of  fat  and  lean  stock. 
There  are  seven  sties  at  the  end  of  the  steaming-house  which  accom- 
modate a  boar  and  six  brood  sows,  which  are  calculated  to  produce 
yearly  one  hundred  pigs,  sixty  of  which  will  be  fattened  from  Sep. 
tember  to  April  in  fifteen  sties,  placed  in  two  parallel  rows,  and  made 
to  contain  two  hogs  in  each  apartment.  The  rest  are  sold  as  stores. 
The  yearly  rental  is  from  200/.  to  250£  according  to  the  prices  of 
the  produce.  The  steamed  food  consists  of  potatoes  and  meal,  with 
grain  to  finish,  and  is  conveyed  to  the  sties  along  a  paved  road  or 
path,  in  a  small  four-wheeled  wagon.  The  steamer  also  cooks  pota- 
toes for  the  working  horses,  and  chaff  for  milch  cows,  and  thus  applies 
the  original  cost  to  several  purposes,  and  fully  employs  a  man.  The 
store  pigs  are  fed  in  summer  with  clover  and  vetches,  artd  in  winter 
with  roots  either  raw  or  steamed.  Water  is  brought  to  the  steam- 
ing-house  in  a  pipe  from  the  farm-yards,  which  are  all  supplied  by 
ball-cocks  from  elevated  casks  fed  by  a  forcing-pump.  A  pipe  under- 
neath conveys  the  water  from  the  potato-washer  to  the  pond  in  the 
store-yard,  where  it  passes  to  the  lower  curve  of  the  yard,  and  then 
meeting  with  the  collected  moisture  of  the  whole  area  of  the  pig- 
gery, falls  through  an  iron  grate  into  a  paved  culvert,  and  is  conveyed 
to  the  manure-pit,  to  which  the  liquid  of  the  farmery  is  Collected  and 
brought  by  a  drain  ;  along  the  side  of  the  road  are  sheds  opening 

ike  this  will 


into  the  store-yard.  The  cost  of  erecting  a  piggery  li 
vary  from  80£.  to  100Z.,  according  to  the  price  of  labor  and  mate- 
rials, and  to  whether  the  roofs  be  tiled  or  slated.  The  steaming- 
house  has  an  upper  floor  to  serve  as  a  store-house  for  grain,  meal, 
roots,  &c. 

The  piggery  should  always  be  built  as  near  to  that  part  of  the 
establishment  from  which  the  chief  part  of  provision  is  to  come  as 
possible,  as  much  labor  will  thus  be  saved.  If  the  dairy  is  to  supply 
this,  let  it  be  as  near  as  may  be  to  that  building  ;  or  if  it  is  to  come 
from  a  brewery  or  distillery,  then  let  it  be  near  to  them. 

Care  must  also  be  taken  to  preserve  the  dung  and  urine,  and  some 
place  fixed  in  which  these  matters  can  be  stored  for  manure.  Wher 
ever  the  swine  are  regularly  and  well  managed,  this  will  not  be  diffi- 
cult, for  the  animals  will  always,  if  they  can,  lay  their  dung  at  a 
distance  from  the  place  where  they  sleep  or  feed.  A  small  paved 
yard,  somewhat  sloping,  and  with  a  gutter  to  serve  as  a  receptacle, 
will  best  answer  this  purpose,  and  thence  it  can  be  daily  removed  to 
the  proper  heap  or  tank. 

We  have  been  told  of  a  gentleman  who  keeps  only  a  few  pigs  for 
his  own  use,  and  has  a  double  sty  for  them,  by  which  means  he  is 
enabled  to  keep  them  exceedingly  clean  and  sweet.  Every  morning 
the  pigs  are  changed  from  one  into  the  other,  so  that  each  sty 
remains  unoccupied  for  four-and-twenty  hours,  during  which  time  it 
is  thoroughly  cleaned  out,  and  of  course  becomes  well  aired,  and  free 


202  THE  HOG. 

from  all  unpleasant  smell.  And  well  do  we  remember  the  pleasure 
with  which  we  used  to  view  the  pigs  and  sties  of  an  old  friend  of 
ours,  now  no  more.  A  door  leading  out  of  his  beautiful  flower- 
garden  brought  us  to  those  equally  well-tended  objects  of  his  pride. 
The  sties  were  always  kept  whitened  on  the  inside  ;  the  sloping  floor 
carried  off  all  moisture  to  a  deep  gutter  running  between  the  sty 
and  the  square-paved  yard,  each  of  which  inclined  towards  it ;  a 
trough  ever  stood  with  water  clear  as  crystal  for  them  to  drink,  and 
the  animals  themselves  were,  by  washing,  curry  combing,  and  perfect 
cleanliness  about  them,  as  neat  and  sleek  as  a  lady's  lap  dog.  They 
were,  in  fact,  pet  pigs.  Nor  are  we  without  pleasurable  reminis- 
cences of  delicate  spare  ribs,  loins,  and  legs  of  pork,  and  delicious 
sucking-pigs. 

Washings,  combings,  and  brushings,  are  valuable  adjuncts  in  the 
treatment  of  swine ;  the  energies  of  the  skin  are  thus  roused  and  the 
pores  opened,  consequently  the  healthful  functions  are  aided,  and  that 
inertness  so  likely  to  be  engendered  by  the  lazy  life  of  a  fattening 
pig  counteracted.  We  cannot  close  this  chapter  without  quoting  the 
following  account  of  the  mode  of  keeping  pigs  in  Mexico : — 

"  Fine  breeds  of  these  useful  animals  are  kept  by  many  persons 
of  wealth,  as  an  article  of  trade,  in  the  city  of  Mexico  ;  and  the  care 
and  attention  paid  to  their  cleanliness  and  comfort  so  far  exceed  any 
thing  I  have  seen  elsewhere,  that  a  short  account  may  be  useful  by 
furnishing  hints  to  our  farmers,  brewers,  distillers,  &c.,  by  whom 
large  numbers  of  these  valuable  animals  could  be  and  are  conveni- 
ently kept.  The  premises  where  the  business  is  carried  on  are  ex- 
tensive, consisting  in  general  of  a  good  dwelling-house,  with  a  shop, 
slaughter-house,  and  places  for  singeing  the  pigs,  large  bowls  for 
rendering  the  lard,  salting  and  drying-rooms,  and  lard-rooms,  with 
wooden  bins  for  containing  the  rendered  fat,  which  is  an  article  of 
great  consumption  in  Spanish  cookery,  being  used  as  a  substitute  for 
butter.  There  is  also  a  soap  manufactory,  in  which  the  oflfal  fat  is 
manufactured,  and  apartments  where  the  blood  is  made  into  a  kind 
of  black-pudding,  and  sold  to  the  poor.  Behind  all  these  are  the 
sties  for  the  hogs,  generally  from  eight  hundred  to  one  thousand  in 
number,  which  occupy  a  considerable  range  of  well-built  sheds  about 
thirty  feet  deep,  with  the  roofs  descending  very  low,  and  having  the 
entrance  through  low  arches,  before  which  is  an  open  space  the  whole 
length  of  the  yard,  and  about  twenty-four  feet  wide,  in  the  centre 
of  which  is  a  kind  of  aqueduct  built  of  stone,  and  filled  with  clear 
water  supplied  from  a  well  at  the  end  of  the  premises.  The  hogs 
can  only  put  their  noses  into  this  water  through  holes  in  the  wall, 
which  prevents  their  dirtying  it,  as  it  passes  through  the  whole 
division  of  the  yard.  This  is  the  only  liquid  given  them,  and  their 
food  is  maize  or  Indian  corn,  slightly  moistened,  and  scattered  at 


GENERAL  MANAGEMENT  OF  THE  HOG.       203 

stated  hcurs  on  the  ground,  which  in  the  yard,  as  well  as  the  place 
where  they  sleep,  is  kept  perfectly  dry  and  clean.  They  are  attend- 
ed by  Indians  with  every  possible  care.  There  is  a  cold  bath  on  the 
premises,  which  they  are  obliged  frequently  to  use,  as  cleanliness  is 
considered  essential  to  their  acquiring  that  enormous  load  of  fat  from 
which  the  principal  profit  is  derived.  Their  ease  and  comfort  seem 
also  in  every  respect  to  be  studiously  attended  to ;  and  the  occupation 
of  two  Indian  lads  will  cause  a  smile  on  the  countenances  of  my 
musical  readers,  when  they  are  informed  that  they  are  employed 
from  morning  till  night  in  settling  any  disputes  or  little  bickerings 
that  may  arise  among  the  happy  inhabitants  of  this  community, 
either  in  respect  to  rank  or  condition,  and  in  singing  them  to  sleep. 
The  boys  are  chosen  for  the  strength  of  their  lungs,  and  their  taste 
and  judgment  in  delighting  the  ears  and  lulling  the  senses  of  this 
amiable  harmonic  society ;  they  succeed  each  other  in  chanting 
during  the  whole  day,  to  the  great  delight  and  gratification  of  their 
bristly  audience,  who  seem  fully  to  appreciate  the  merits  of  the 
performers."  Martin  says : — 

"Any  place  is  thought  good  enough  for  a  pig,  no  matter  how 
dark,  damp,  or  filthy  it  may  be,  and  in  such  places  we  have  seen 
pigs  kept.  But  what  has  been  the  consequence  ? — Diseases  of  the 
skin,  swellings  of  the  joints,  dullness,  and  loss  of  eager,  healthy  ap- 
petite ;  often,  after  being  slaughtered,  the  intestines  are  found  in- 
fested by  parasitic  worms.  So  far  from  any  place  being  good 
enough  for  a  pig,  much  of  the  animal's  health  and  ultimate  profit- 
ableness depend  on  the  domicile  in  which  it  is  kept.  For  those  who 
keep  only  one  or  two  pigs,  a  well-built  wind  and  waterproof  sty  or 
shed  for  a  dormitory,  in  an  inclosure  for  air  and  exercise  as  large 
as  convenient,  will  suffice.  The  feeding-trough  should  be  made  of 
stone,  as  wooden  troughs  are  liable  to  be  gnawed,  and  are  often 
knocked  over  when  half  full  of  food  by  the  snout  of  the  pig,  either 
by  accident  or  in  wantonness.  It  would  be  well  also  to  give  the 
animal  access  to  a  stone  receptacle  of  clean  water;  for  though  much 
water  should  not  be  given  to  a  pig  during  the  progress  of  fattening, 
still  the  animal  should  never  be  allowed  to  suffer  from  thirst ;  no- 
thing tends  more  than  thrist  to  derange  the  digestive  organs,  and 
prevent  the  animal  from  thriving.  The  floor  of  the  whole  sty  and 
yard  should  be  well  paved  with  brick,  and  incline  to  a  drain,  both 
for  the  sake  of  dryness  and  facility  of  cleaning.  The  manure,  liquid 
as  well  as  more  solid,  should  be  put  into  a  manure-pit  for  the  future 
benefit  of  the  garden.  A  sufficient  quantity  of  straw  should  be 
spread  on  the  floor  of  the  dormitory,  and  all  should  be  clean,  even 
the  trough,  which  should  be  washed  out  every  day.  The  door  should 
oe  made  to  open  inwards  ;  otherwise,  if  not  very  strongly  secured, 
it  is  liable  to  be  forced  open  by  the  animal,  and  much  mischief  may 


204  THE  HOG. 

be  done  in  the  garden  before  any  one  is  aware  of  it.  Pigs  are  very 
fond  of  rubbing  their  sides  and  shoulders  against  convenient  objects, 
and  this,  as  it  excites  the  circulation  of  the  blood  in  the  vessels  of 
the  skin,  is  very  beneficial ;  hence,  a  short  stout  post  driven  into  the 
ground,  by  one  of  the  side .  walls  of  the  little  yard  or  inclosure, 
would  be  a  serviceable  and  unexpensive  addition.  The  sty  should 
r/ot  be  exposed  to  the  cold,  damp  winds;  at  the  same  time,  it 
should  be  shaded  from  the  mid-day  glare  of  a  hot  summer's  sun. 
Such  a  sty  as  we  have  described,  a  cottager  may  build  for  himself: 
it  will  cost  little,  excepting  his  own  labor.  His  objects  are  the  com- 
fort of  the  animal,  and  the  saving  of  the  manure ;  and  the  latter 
object,  in  particular,  is  too  often  neglected,  as  is  also  the  cleanliness 
of  the  sty  altogether. 

"  The  above  remarks  apply  more  especially  to  the  cottager,  but  are 
not  quite  applicable,  excepting  as  far  as  principle  goes,  to  the  farmer, 
who  finds  it  profitable  to  keep  many  pigs,  or  the  brewer,  or  distiller, 
or  milk-merchant,  upon  whose  establishments  great  numbers  of  these 
animals  are  kept.  The  farmer  may  find  a  range  of  simple  styes 
similar  to  what  we  have  just  described  to  be  convenient,  with  larger 
accommodations  for  breeding  sows,  and  an  exclusive  and  well-se- 
cured domicile  for  the  boar.  The  young  pigs,  and  porkers,  with  the 
sows,  will  have  the  advantage  of  a  farm-yard  or  large  straw-yard, 
in  which  they  may  indulge  themselves  according  to  their  natural 
instincts.  They  must  of  course  be  stied  up  for  fattening ;  but 
before  this  process  commences  they  may  be  turned  into  the  cut 
wheat  fields  in  autumn,  or  into  the  oak  copses  (if  there  be  such,) 
not  however  without  being  under  surveillance.  The  air  and  the 
moderate  exercise  taken  in  searching  for  a  scanty  but  excellent  kind 
of  food,  will  render  their  repast  when  driven  home  in  the  afternoon 
most  acceptable.  The  farmer,  however,  and  the  brewer  or  milk- 
merchant  (we  mean  the  great  milk-dealers  in  the  neighborhood  of 
London,)  are  differently  situated.  In  the  latter  cases,  a  well-ar- 
ranged series  of  airy,  cleanly  styes  is  imperative,  especially  for  pigs 
above  the  size  of  sucklings,  for  even  in  such  establishments  the  lat- 
ter may  be  allowed  some  degree  of  liberty.  System  and  order 
should  prevail.  There  should  be  a  proper  place  in  which  to  mix 
and  boil  the  food,  with  one  or  more  large  coppers  and  straining 
apparatus.  The  food  should  be  mixed  in  square  brick  tanks,  sunk 
in  the  ground  and  cemented,  in  order  that  no  filtration  of  the  more 
fluid  parts  may  take  place.  If  there  is  only  one  tank  there  should 
be  a  partition  in  it.  From  the  boiling-house  there  should  be  an 
immediate  communication  with  the  styes,  under  cover  if  possible—- 
but an  out-house  close  to  the  styes,  with  a  loft,  for  roots,  &c..  may  be 
made  available.  E:ich  sty  should  open  into  a  small  yard  behind, 
inclosed  with  a  low  vail  or  paling,  but  with  a  strong  door.  There 


GENERAL  MANAGEMENT  OF  THE  HOG.        205 

should  be  separate  styes  for  breeding  sows,  for  porkers,  and  fatten- 
ing hogs.  Not  more  than  three  or  four  of  the  latter  should  be  in 
one  sty.  The  food  should  be  given  in  troughs,  in  a  separate  com- 
partment from  that  in  which  the  hogs  lie  down,  and  no  litter  should 
be  allowed  there.  The  floor  should  be  of  brick. or  stone;  should 
be  frequently  washed  clean,  and  the  troughs  should  be  cleaned  out 
before  every  meal.  Any  of  the  food  left  from  the  last  meal  should 
be  taken  out  and  given  to  the  store  pigs.  A  very  convenient  con- 
trivance for  keeping  the  troughs  clean  is  to  have  a  flap  or  door  made 
with  hinges,  so  that  it  can  swing,  and  alternately  be  fastened  by  a 
bolt  to  the  inside  or  outside  edge  of  the  trough.  When  the  hogs 
have  fed  sufficiently,  the  door  is  swung  in,  and  the  trough  easily 
cleaned  out.  It  remains  on  the  inside  till  feeding  time,  when  the 
food  is  poured  in  without  any  impediment  from  the  greedy  hogs, 
who  cannot  get  at  it  till  the  door  is  swung  out.  This  simple  con- 
trivance saves  a  great  deal  of  trouble,  and  is  easily  adapted  to 
any  common  sty.  It  is  a  great  advantage  to  be  able  to  inspect 
the  styes  without  going  into  them ;  and  this  is  effected  by  placing 
them  under  a  common  roof,  which  may  conveniently  be  a  lean-to  to 
the  boiling-house  or  any  other  building,  with  a  passage  between 
them. 

"  Where  numerous  pigs  are  kept,  it  will  be  advantageous  to  have 
a  double  row  of  styes,  with  a  paved  alley  between  them  ;  there 
should  be  good  drainage,  by  which  all  refuse  is  carried  off  to  ft 
manure-pit,  and  the  greatest  cleanliness  should  be  maintained.  Six 
breeding  sows,  giving  each  two  litters  per  annum,  will  produce 
yearly  upwards  of  a  hundred  pigs ;  of  these,  fifty  or  sixty  may  be 
fattened  at  the  latter  part  of  autumn,  through  the  winter,  and  during 
the  months  of  February  and  March,  for  bacon  ;  the  younger  brood 
may  be  killed  as  porkers,  or  sold  off  as  stores.  With  respect  to 
the  steaming  apparatus,  it  will  be  found  available  for  other  animals 
on  the  farm,  as  horses,  &c.,  to  which  steamed  potatoes  and  other 
roots  may  be  profitably  allowed. 

"  The  breeding  sows  should  be  kept  each  by  itself  in  a  large  and 
commodious  sty,  and  the  store  and  fattening  pigs  should  have  their 
respective  tenements.  Some  recommend  that  the  floor  of  the  sleep- 
ing-shed be  made  of  planks,  as  bricks  are  cold  and  apt  to  induce 
cramp  or  diarrhoea;  certainly  wood  is  preferable  to  bricks.  Where 
bricks  are  used,  they  should  be  set  in  cement,  in  order  that  no 
filtration  may  take  place  through  the  interstices,  and  thereby  keep 
the  soil  underneath  in  a  state  of  wetness,  whence  noxious  gases 
will  necessarily  arise  and  generate  disease,  to  the  great  loss  of  the 
farmer.  Another  thing  is  desirable,  namely,  that  the  roof  of  the 
sty,  whether  composed  of  slates,  tiles,  or  slabs  of  stone,  should  have 
a  gutter  in  order  to  carry  off  the  rain  ;  this  may  be  easily  contrived, 
and  at  little  expense,  and  will  often  keep  the  sty  from  being  flooded," 
-—MARTIN. 


206  THE  HOG. 


CHAPTER  XIY. 

Tips,  Profit  of,  to  the  Butcher— Suckinpr-pigs— Pork-butchers— Pig-killincr  at  Rome—Pickling 
Pork — Bacon  :  Mode  of  Curing  in  Hampshire — Buckinghamshire — Witshlre — Yorkshire- 
Westphalia— America— Brine  a  Poison  for  Pigs—Quantity  of  Bacon,  Harn,  and  Salt  Pork 
imported  during  the  last  Three  Years — Importation  of  Swine — Pigs'Dung  as  Manure. 

THERE  is  perhaps  no  animal  so  entirely  profitable  to  the  butcher 
as  the  pig.  Scarcely  an  atom  of  it  but  is  useful.  The  offal  is  so 
small  as  not  to  be  thought  of  in  comparison  with  that  arising  from 
cattle  and  sheep.  The  feet,  the  head,  and  even  portions  of  the  intes- 
tines are  saleable  for  food  and  eagerly  purchased  by  epicures ;  the 
scraps  and  trimmings  of  the  meat  make  delicious  sausages,  pork  pies, 
and  other  such  savory  dishes ;  brawn,  too,  is  another  of  the  delicacies 
we  owe  to  the  much  despised  pig ;  the  fat,  or  lard,  is  invaluable  to 
cooks,  confectioners,  perfumers,  and  apothecaries;  pigs'  bladders 
meet  a  ready  sale ;  the  skin  is  available  for  pocket-books  and  several 
purposes ;  and  the  bristles  form  by  no  means  an  inconsiderable  item 
in  the  tables  of  imports  and  exports,  and  are  used  by  shoemakers, 
as  well  as  in  the  manufacture  of  brushes,  &c.  Lastly,  the  flesh  in 
the  form  of  fresh  or  pickled  pork,  ham,  and  bacon,  constitutes  the 
",hief  food  of  thousands  of  human  beings  in  all  parts  of  the  globe. 

In  France,  from  one-half  to  two-thirds  of  the  meat  consumed  by 
the  poorer  and  middling  classes  of  the  provinces  is  pork.  In  Ireland, 
the  peasantry  and  many  of  the  middle-men  scarcely  know  the  taste 
of  any  other  kind  of  meat.  In  most  of  our  Channel  Islands  pork 
constitutes  the  staple  animal  food  of  the  laboring  classes  and  small 
farmers;  and  in  America,  and  especially  among  the  new  settlements 
and  back-woods,  it  is  often  the  only  animal  food  for  the  first  few 
years  of  the  settler's  life. 

SUCKING-PIGS. 

In  our  own  country,  "  sucking-pigs"  too  are  in  great  esteem,  and 
will,  at  their  season,  fetch  a  very  high  price.  Charles  Lamb,  in  one 
of  his  inimitable  "  Essays  of  Elia,"  declares,  "  Of  all  the  delicacies 
of  the  whole  mundus  edibilis,  I  will  maintain  this  to  be  the  most 
delicate. 

"  I  speak  not  of  your  grown  porkers — things  between  pig  and 
pork — these  hobbydehoys ;  but  a  young  and  tender  suckling,  under 
a  moon  old,  guiltless  as  ye':  of  the  sty;  with  no  original  speck  of 
the  amor  immunditice,  the  hereditary  failing  of  the  first  parent,  as 
yet  manifest ;  his  voice  as  yet  not  broken,  but  something  between 
a  childish  treble  and  a  grumble,  the  mild  forerunner  or  prceludium 
of  a  grunt. 


SUCKING-PIGS.  207 

"He  must  be  roasted.  I  am  not  ignorant  that  our  ancestors  ate 
them  seethed  or  boiled ;  but  what  a  sacrifice  of  the  exterior  tegu- 
ment ! 

"  There  is  no  flavor  comparable,  I  will  contend,  to  that  of  the  crisp, 
tawny,  well  watched,  not  over-roasted,  crackling,  as  it  is  well  called ; 
the  very  teeth  are  invited  to  their  share  of  the  pleasure  at  this  ban- 
quet, in  overcoming  the  coy,  brittle  resistance,  with  the  adhesive 
oleaginous — Oh,  call  it  not  fat ! — but  an  indefinable  sweetness  grow- 
ing up  to  it — the  tender  blossoming  of  fat — fat  cropped  in  the  bud 
— taken  in  the  shoot — in  the  first  innocence — the  cream  and  quint- 
essence of  the  child-pig's  yet  pure  food ;  the  lean,  no  lean ;  but  a 
kind  of  animal  manna,  or  rather,  fat  and  lean  (if  it  must  be  so)  so 
blended  and  running  into  each  other,  that  both  together  make  but 
one  arnbrosian  result,  or  common  substance. 

"  Behold  him  while  he  is  doing  !  it  seemeth  rather  a  refreshing 
warmth  than  a  scorching  heat  that  he  is  so  passive  to.  How  equally 
he  twirleth  round  the  string.  Now  he  is  just  done.  To  see  the  ex- 
treme sensibility  of  that  tender  age  ;  he  hath  wept  out  his  pretty 
eyes  —  radiant  jellies  —  shooting  stars.  See  him  in  the  dish,  his 
second  cradle ;  how  meek  he  lieth!  wouldst  thou  have  this  innocent 
grow  up  to  the  grossness  and  indocility  which  too  often  accompany 
maturer  swinehood  1  Ten  to  one  he  would  have  proved  a  glutton, 
a  sloven,  an  obstinate,  disagreeable  animal,  wallowing  in  all  filthy 
conversation — from  these  sins  he  is  happily  snatched  away. 

Ere  sin  could  blight  or  sorrow  fade, 
Death  came  with  timely  care. 

"  His  memory  is  odoriferous :  no  clown  curseth,  whilst  his  stomach 
half  ejecteth  the  rank  bacon ;  no  coalheaver  bolteth  him  in  reeking 
sausages :  he  hath  a  fair  sepulchre  in  the  grateful  stomach  of  the 
judicious  epicure,  and  for  such  a  tomb  might  be  content  to  die. 

"  Pig — let  me  speak  his  praise — is  no  less  provocative  of  the 
appetite  than  he  is  satisfactory  to  the  criticalness  of  the  censorious 
palate.  The  strong  man  may  batten  on  him,  and  the  weakling 
refuseth  not  his  mild  juices. 

"  Unlike  to  mankind's  mixed  characters,  a  bundle  of  virtues  and 
vices,  inexplicably  intertwisted  and  not  to  be  unravelled  without 
hazard,  he  is — good  throughout.  No  part  of  him  is  better  or 
worse  than  another.  He  helpeth,  as  far  as  his  little  means  goeth,  all 
around." 

Sucking-pigs  should  be  killed  at  from  a  fortnight  to  three  weeks 
old.  The  Chinese  breed  furnishes  the  most  delicate  and  delicious 
"  porklings."  They  should  be  stuck ;  all  the  blood  suffered  to  drain 
out;  scalded  and  scraped  gently  ;  and  the  bowels  taken  out,  and  the 
inside  sponged  dry  and  clean. 


208  THE  HOG. 

The  alterations  latterly  effected  in  the  breeds  of  swine  have  tended 
materially  to  improve  pork,  and  to  render  it  more  sought  for  and 
valued.  We  can  recall  to  mind  when  the  thought  of  pork  was  asso- 
ciated in  our  minds  with  visions  of  coarse-grained  meat  and  oily  fat, 
and  with  forebodings  of  a  fit  of  indigestion.  Nothing  could  tend 
more  effectually  to  banish  such  fancies  than  a  sight  and  taste  of  the 
small,  fine-grained  joints,  delicate  as  poultry,  and  of  excellent  flavor, 
which  have  taken  the  place  of  those  ungainly  legs  and  Brobdignagian 
loins  and  hands  of  "  olden  times." 

And  with  the  improvement  of  the  meat  has  grown  an  increased 
demand  for  it.  Formerly,  ay,  as  lately  as  within  the  last  five  and 
twenty  years,  the  trade  of  "  pork-butcher"  was  unknown  in  almost 
all  our  country  towns,  even  in  those  of  some  considerable  import- 
ance; it  is  no  longer  so;  there  are  now  few  places  of  any  size  or 
note  which  have  not  on  an  average  one  pork-butcher  to  every  two  or 
three  meat-butchers;  and  in  all  smaller  places  pork  is  generally  to 
oe  procured  wherever  other  meat  is  sold. 

PORKERS. 

*  Supposing  the  brood  to  be  weaned  at  the  age  of  eight  or  nine 
weeks,  those  destined  for  porkers  may  be  allowed  the  range  of  the 
paddock  or  straw  yard  for  three  or  four  weeks,  being  at  the  same 
time  regularly  fed  on  the  refuse  of  the  mill  and  dairy.  Where,  as 
in  the  case  of  market  gardeners  and  other  such,  a  degree  of  liberty 
cannot  be  allowed,  we  recommend  that  the  sty-yard  be  as  roomy  and 
extensive  as  possible.  During  the  last  ten  days  or  fortnight,  the 
feeding  may  be  pushed,  and  more  barley-meal,  pea-meal,  and  milk 
allowed.  Too  many  pigs  should  not  be  kept  together  in  the  same 
sty,  nor  should  they  be  of  unequal  ages,  as  the  larger  are  apt  to  per- 
secute their  younger  co-mates,  and  drive  them  from  the  trough. 
Porkers  are  killed  at  different  ages,  varying  from  about  three  months 
to  seven  months  old.  We  consider  that  the  true  dairy-fed  pork  is 
in  perfection  when  the  animal  does  not  exceed  the  age  of  about  three 
months,  or  ranges  from  three  to  four  months.  Large  pork  is  apt  to 
be  coarse  and  over  fat,  and  consequently  not  so  digestible  as  younger 
meat,  and  is  therefore  not  so  much  sought  for  in  the  London  market. 
It  bears  a  lower  price  than  small  pork  ;  and  though  the  pig  weighs 
heavier,  still,  taking  the  extra  keep  into  consideration,  it  is  perhaps 
not  more  profitable.  On  such  points  as  this,  however,  the  breeder 
will  always  consult  his  own  interest,  and  study  the  demands  of  the 
market. 


GENERAL  MANAGEMENT  OF  THE   HOG.  209 

STORE   HOGB. 

"  Of  store  hogs  little  need  be  said — they  are  intended  either  for 
sale,  or  as  future  bacon  hogs.  They  should  be  kept  in  fair  condition, 
not  too  low,  and  their  health  should  be  attended  to ;  they  should  be 
allowed  to  run  in  the  fields  or  in  the  woods  and  copses,  when  the 
beechmast  or  acorns  are  falling,  and  be  regularly  and  moderately 
fed  at  certain  intervals,  say  in  the  morning  and  evening ;  knowing 
their  feeding  times,  by  habit,  they  will  never  willingly  be  absent, 
and  wherever  they  may  ramble  during  the  day,  their  return  at  the 
appointed  time  in  the  evening  may  be  safely  calculated  upon.  After 
their  evening  meal  they  should  be  secured  in  their  sty,  and  snugly 
bedded  up. 

HOGS    FATTENING  FOR   BACON 

"  Bacon-hogs  (we  here  except  breeding  sows,  destined  after  two  or 
three  litters  for  the  butcher)  are  generally  put  up  to  fatten  at  the 
age  of  twelve  or  eighteen  months.  Under  the  term  bacon-hogs,  we 
include  the  barrows  and  spayed  females  chosen  by  the  breeder  or 
feeder  for  fattening,  after  the  age  admissible  as  porkers.  In  the  fat- 
tening of  bacon-hogs  much  judgment  is  requisite.  It  will  not  answer 
to  over-feed  them  at  first ;  under  such  a  plan  they  will  loses  their 
appetite,  become  feverish,  and  require  medicine.  They  should  be  fed 
at  regular  intervals ;  this  is  essential ;  animals  fed  regularly  thrive 
better  than  those  fed  at  irregular  intervals,  nor  should  more  food  be 
given  them  at  each  meal  than  they  will  consume.  They  should  be 
sufficiently  satisfied,  yet  not  satiated.  It  would  be  as  well  to  vary 
their  diet;  midlings,  peas,  potato-meal,  and  barley -meal  may  be 
given  alternately,  or  in  different  admixtures  with  wash,  whey,  butter- 
milk, skim-milk,  and  the  occasional  addition  of  cut  grasses,  and  other 
green  vegetables  ;  a  little  salt  should  be  scattered  in  their  mess — it 
will  contribute  to  their  health,  and  quicken  their  appetite ;  a  stone 
trough  of  clean  water  should  be  accessible,  and  the  feeding-troughs 
should  be  regularly  cleaned  out  after  every  meal.  The  sty  should 
be  free  from  all  dirt,  and  the  bed  of  straw  comfortable ;  indeed,  it  is 
an  excellent  practice  to  wash  and  brush  the  hides  of  the  animals,  so  as 
to  keep  the  skin  clean,  excite  the  circulation  of  the  cutaneous  vessels 
and  open  the  pores.  Pigs  thus  treated  will  fatten  more  kindly  than 
dirty,  scurfy  animals  put  upon  better  fare.  This  essential  point  is 
greatly  neglected,  from  the  too  common  idea  that  the  pig  is  naturally 
a  filthy  brute,  than  which  nothing  can  be  more  untrue  j  it  is  the 
keeper  who  is  filthy,  and  not  the  animal,  if  he  constrain  a  pig  to 
wallow  in  a  disgusting  sty. 

"  Too  many  pigs  should  not  be  fed  in  the  same  sty  ;  three  are 
sufficient,  and  they  should  be,  as  far  as  possible,  of  the  same  age ; 


210  THE  HOG. 

and  the  meals  should  be  given  frequently,  but  only  in  moderation  at 
each  time, — over-gorging  is  sure  to  cause  indigestion,  and  the  only 
remedy  for  this  is  abstinence ;  a  little  sulphur  occasionally  mingled 
with  their  food  is  useful.  When  the  store  hogs  are  first  put  up  (and 
\ve  must  suppose  them  in  moderate  condition),  the  food  should  only 
be  a  few  degrees  superior  to  that  on  which  they  have  already  fed ; 
it  should  be  improved  step  by  step,  till  the  digestive  powers  are 
adapted  for  that  of  the  most  nutritious  quality  ;  and  with  this  the 
fattening  must  be  completed. 

"A  bacon-hog  is  generally  fattened  in  autumn,  and  killed  about 
Christmas, — sometimes  after  Christmas,  sometimes  a  few  weeks 
before.  The  average  length  of  time  required  for  bringing  the  animal 
into  good  condition,  varies  from  about  fourteen  to  twenty-one  weeks, 
according  to  size  and  breed.  Some  fatten  hogs  until  they  are  inca- 
pable of  moving,  from  the  enormous  load  of  fat  with  which  they  are 
burthened,  and  in  order  to  accomplish  this,  four,  five,  or  even  six 
months  are  required.  An  animal  so  fed  will  certainly  not  pay  for 
its  food,  nor  can  it  be  deemed  in  health ;  the  heart  and  lungs  will  be 
oppressed,  the  circulation  impeded,  and  the  breathing  laborious ; 
sufficient  fatness  is  all  that  is  desirable.  A  fat  hog  is  a  comely, 
comfortable-looking  animal,  the  embodied  type  of  epicurean  felicity  ; 
but  a  bloated,  overladen  hog  is  a  disgusting  object,  uneasy  and  dis- 
tressed in  its  own  feelings,  incapable  even  of  enjoying  its  food,  buried 
in  its  excessive  fat. 

"The  quantity  of  barley-meal,  pea-meal,  or  other  farinaceous 
food  (exclusive  of  wash,  skim-milk,  &c.)  consumed  by  a  hog  during 
the  time  of  its  fattening  for  bacon,  will  vary  greatly  according  to 
the  size  and  breed  of  the  animal.  Taking  the  average,  and  supposing 
the  pig's  age  to  be  fourteen  or  fifteen  months,  and  the  animal  to  be  in 
fair  condition,  we  should  say  that  ten  or  twelve  bushels  of  meal  (that 
is,  barley-meal,  pea-meal,  &c.)  would  be  sufficient  for  every  useful 
purpose  ;  well  do  we  know  that  much  less  often  suffices.  But  we 
are  supposing  the  production  of  first-rate  bacon.  Porkers,  of  course, 
require  a  less  outlay  according  to  their  age.  A  porker  ought  not  to 
carry  too  much  fat;  neither  the  feeder  nor  the  buyer  profit  by  over- 
fed pork,  though  perhaps  the  pork-butcher  may — he  retails  it  per 
pound  to  his  customers.  Our  observations,  however,  do  not  apply 
to  the  respectable  dealers  in  pork  in  London  and  its  environs,  who 
exhibit  the  most  delicious  country-fed  meat,  and  justly  pride  them- 
selves upon  an  article  of  consumption  which  brings  them  the  first- 
rate  custom. 

"  With  respect  to  the  estimated  tables  relative  to  the  increase  in 
weight  of  hogs,  under  certain  modes  of  feeding,  and  under  given 
quantities  of  food,  we  hold  them  to  be  utterly  fallacious.  The  feed- 
er's  means,  the  produce  of  his  grounds,  the  breed  he  adopts,  and  the 
proportion  of  a  tention  he  bestows  on  the  porcine  part  of  his  stock, 


PIG-KILLING.  211 

which  will  be  regulated  by  his  profit  therein,  will  make  all  the  differ- 
ence,  and  must  be  taken  into  the  account.  To  the  farmer  (we  speak 
not  of  others),  the  profit  to  be  derived  by  him  from  feeding  porkers 
or  bacon-hogs  will  depend  upon  suitability,  or  the  apposite  union  of 
circumstances  connected  with  the  locality,  convenience,  and  staple 
returns  of  his  land.  It  is  one  thing  to  keep  a  few  pigs  for  home 
consumption,  and  another  to  keep  them  as  a  source  of  income."— 
MARTIN. 

PIG-KILLING. 

A  pig  that  is  to  be  killed  should  be  kept  without  food  for  the  last 
12  or  16  hours ;  a  little  water  must,  however,  be  within  his  reach. 
Mr.  Henderson  advises  that  in  order  to  prevent  the  animal  from 
struggling  and  screaming  in  the  agonies  of  death,  it  should  in  the 
first  place  be  stunned  by  a  blow  on  the  head.  Some  advise  that  the 
knife  should  be  thrust  into  the  neck  so  as  to  sever  the  artery  leading 
from  the  heart,  while  others  prefer  that  the  animal  should  be  stuck 
through  the  brisket  in  the  direction  of  the  heart,  care,  however,  being 
taken  not  to  touch  the  first  rib.  The  blood  should  then  be  suffered 
to  drain  from  the  carcass,  and  the  more  completely  it  does  so,  the 
better  will  be  the  meat,  say  our  English  pork- butchers,  but  those  of 
some  parts  of  the  Continent  disagree  with  them,  probably  because 
there  the  pig's  flesh  is  eaten  for  the  most  part  fresh,  or  spiced,  or 
cooked  in  other  savory  modes,  and  but  seldom  pickled  or  dried, 
therefore  the  superabundance  of  blood  in  it  communicates  to  it  a 
juicy  richness  agreeable  to  their  palates. 

Mr.  Waterton  gives  a  very  graphic  description  of  the  slaughter 
house  for  swine  at  Rome,  and  the  proceedings  of  the  pig-killers : — 

"As  you  enter  Rome  at  the  Porta  del  Popolo,  a  little  on  your 
right  is  the  great  slaughter-house,  with  a  fine  stream  of  water  run- 
ning through  it.  It  is,  probably,  inferior  to  none  in  Italy  for  an 
extensive  plan  and  for  judicious  arrangements.  Here  some  700  or 
800  pigs  are  killed  on  every  Friday  during  the  winter  season.  No- 
thing can  exceed  the  dexterity  with  which  they  are  despatched.  About 
30  of  these  large  and  fat  black  pigs  are  driven  into  a  commodious 
pen,  followed  by  three  or  four  men,  each  with  a  sharp  skewer  in  his 
hand,  bent  at  one  end,  in  order  that  it  may  be  used  with  advantage. 
On  entering  the  pen,  these  performers,  who  put  you  vastly  in  mind 
of  assassins,  make  a  rush  at  the  hogs,  each  seizing  one  by  the  leg, 
amid  a  general  yell  of  horror  on  the  part  of  the  victims.  Whilst 
the  hog  and  the  man  are  struggling  on  the  ground,  the  latter  with  the 
rapidity  of  thought  pushes  his  skewer  betwixt  the  fore-leg  and  the 
body  quite  into  the  heart,  and  then  gives  it  a  turn  or  two.  The  pig 
can  rise  no  more,  but  screams  for  a  minute  or  so  and  then  expires. 
This  process  is  continued  until  they  are  all  despatched,  the  brute* 


212  THE   HOG. 

sometimes  rolling  over  the  butchers,  and  sometimes  the  butchers 
over  the  brutes,  with  a  yelling  enough  to  stun  one's  ears.  In  the 
mean  time  the  screams  become  fainter  and  fainter,  and  then  all  is 
silence  on  the  death  of  the  last  pig.  A  cart  is  in  attendance;  the 
carcasses  are  lifted  into  it,  and  it  proceeds  through  the  street,  leaving 
one  or  more  dead  hogs  at  the  different  pork-shops.  No  blood  ap- 
pears outwardly,  nor  is  the  internal  haemorrhage  prejudicial  to  the 
meat,  for  Rome  cannot  be  surpassed  in  the  flavor  of  her  bacon  or  in 
the  soundness  of  her  hams." — Essays  on  Natural  History. 

PREP1RING    THE    DEAD    PIG. 

As  soon  as  the  hog  is  dead,  if  it  is  intended  for  pork  let  it  be  laid  on 
a  board  or  table,  and  scalded  with  water  nearly  but  not  quite  on  the 
boil,  and  well  scraped  to  get  off  all  the  hair  and  bristles.  Bacon-hogs 
may  be  singed  by  enveloping  the  body  in  straw  and  setting  the  straw 
on  fire,  and  then  scraping  it  all  over ;  but  when  this  is  done  care 
must  be  taken  not  to  burn  or  parch  the  cuticle.  The  next  thing  to 
be  done  is  to  take  out  the  entrails  and  well  wash  the  interior  of  the 
body  with  luke-warm  water  so  as  to  remove  all  blood  and  impuri- 
ties, and  afterwards  dry  it  with  a  clean  cloth  ;  the  carcass  should  then 
be  hung  up  in  a  cool  place  for  eighteen  or  twenty  hours  to  become 
set  and  firm. 

On  the  following  day  the  feet  are  first  of  all  cut  off,  so  that  they 
shall  not  disfigure  the  hams  or  hands,  and  plenty  of  knuckle  shall  be 
left  to  hang  them  up  by  ;  the  knife  is  then  inserted  at  the  nape  of 
the  neck  and  the  carcass  divided  up  the  middle  of  the  back  bone ; 
the  head  is  then  separated  from  each  side  close  behind  the  ears,  and 
the  hams  and  shoulders  taken  off  and  trimmed ;  some  take  out  the 
chine  and  upper  part  of  the  ribs  in  the  first  place,  but  almost  every 
locality  has  its  peculiar  way  of  proceeding. 

PICKLING    PORK. 

For  pickling  pork  the  sides  should  be  rubbed  over  with  sugar  and 
salt,  and  then  laid  in  a  brine-tub,  in  which  a  thick  layer  of  salt  has 
already  been  strewn,  and  a  slighter  one  of  sugar  ;  the  pork  must  be 
cut  into  such  pieces  as  will  admit  of  its  lying  quite  flat  in  the  tub; 
the  rind  must  be  placed  downwards,  and  between  each  layer  of  pork 
a  layer  of  salt  and  sugar.  When  the  tub  is  quite  full,  a  layer  of  salt 
sufficiently  thick  to  exclude  the  air  must  be  spread  over  the  whole, 
and  the  tub  covered  closely  up  and  left  for  a  week  or  ten  days  ;  if 
by  this  time  the  brine  has  not  begun  to  rise,  warm  water  should 
be  sprinkled  over  the  top  layer. 

Pork  pickled  in  this  way  will  be  ready  for  use  in  about  three 
months,  and  with  proper  car*  will  be  as  good  at  the  end  of  two 


CUBING  BACON.  213 

years  as  it  was  when  first  begun.  The  sugar  is  considered  to  impart 
a  finer  and  richer  flavor  than  saltpetre,  although  the  latter  is  most 
commonly  used.  There  is  no  reason  why  both  sugar  and  saltpetre 
may  not  be  advantageously  combined  with  the  salt  in  pickling  pork, 
as  well  as  in  salting  beef,  for  in  this  latter  process  there  can  be  no 
question  that  a  pickle  composed  of  three  parts  salt,  one  part  salt- 
petre, and  one  sugar,  is  the  very  best  that  can  be  used,  making  the 
meat  tender,  juicy,  well  flavored,  and  fine  colored. 

CURING    BACON. 

Bacon  is  the  next  form  in  which  we  eat  pig's  flesh.  There  has 
been  some  dispute  as  to  the  derivation  of  this  word ;  some  authors 
have  suggested  that  it  may  be  a  corruption  of  the  Scotch  baken^ 
(dried,)  while  others  suggest  that  it  is  derived  from  becchen,  as  the 
finest  flitches  were  considered  to  be  those  furnished  by  animals  that 
were  fattened  on  the  fruit  of  the  beech-tree,  and  this  opinion  is  borne 
out  by  the  fact  that  in  the  old  Lancashire  dialect  the  word  bacon  is 
both  spelt  and  pronounced  beechen.  A  bacon  hog  will  in  general  befit 
for  killing  at  about  a  twelve-month  old,  when  he  will  weigh  some  200 
or  240  Ibs. ;  those  persons  who  care  most  about  the  hams  will  find  it 
answer  their  purpose  best  not  to  let  the  animals  be  too  fat,  or  so  fat 
as  a  bacon-hog,  and  after  having  taken  off  the  hams  to  cut  up  the 
carcass  for  fresh  or  pickling  pork. 

There  are  various  methods  of  curing  bacon  and  hams,  practised 
in  the  different  counties  of  England,  as  well  as  in  Scotland,  America, 
and  the  Continent.  We  will  proceed  to  describe  a  few  of  the  best 
and  most  successful. 

In  Hampshire  and  Berkshire  the  practice  is  to  choose  a  dry  day, 
when  the  wind  is  blowing  from  the  north,  and  kill  the  hog  early  in 
the  morning  (it  having  fasted  the  day  before.)  When  dressed  hang 
him  up  in  some  airy  place  for  24  hours,  then  proceed  to  cut  him  up. 
This  being  done,  lay  the  flitches  on  the  ground,  and  sprinkle  them 
with  salt  lightly,  so  let  them  remain  for  six  or  eight  hours ;  then 
turn  them  up  edgeways,  and  let  the  brine  run  off.  In  the  mean  time 
take  two  or  three  gallons  of  best  salt,  and  two  ounces  of  saltpetre, 
oounded  very  fine,  and  well  mixed  together ;  and  the  salting  bench 
being  made  of  the  best  seasoned  oak,  proceed  to  salt  the  flitches  by 
rubbing  in  the  salt  on  the  back  side  of  the  flitch.  This  being  done, 
turn  the  inside  upwards,  and  lay  on  the  salt  about  a  quarter  of  an 
inch  in  thickness  :  in  like  manner  treat  ev*ery  flitoh.  On  the  third 
day  afterwards  change  the  flitches,  viz.,  take  off  the  uppermost  and 
reverse  them,  at  the  same  time  lay  on  salt  a  quarter  of  an  inch  in 
thickness.  There  will  be  no  need  of  rubbing  as  before-mentioned, 
neither  should  the  saltpetre  be  repeated,  otherwise  the  lean  of  the 
bacon  will  be  hard.  The  changing  and  salting  should  be  done  every 


214:  THE   HOG. 

third  day  for  six  successive  times,  when  the  bacon  will  be  sufficiently 
salt.  Then  proceed  to  rub  off  all  the  stale  briny  salt,  and  lay  on 
each  flitch  a  covering  of  clean  fresh  bran  or  sawdust,  and  take  it  to 
the  drying  loft.  It  should  be  there  hung  by  means  of  crooks  fast- 
ened in  the  neck  of  the  flitch,  and  remain  for  fourteen  or  sixteen 
days.  The  fuel  most  proper  for  drying  bacon  is  cleft  oak  or  ash, 
what  is  commonly  called  cord  wood. 

In  Buckinghamshire,  as  soon  as  the  flitches  are  cut  from  the  hog 
they  lay  them  on  a  form  or  table  in  a  slanting  position,  and,  suppos- 
ing the  whole  hog  to  have  weighed  240  or  280  Ibs.,  take  a  quarter 
of  a  pound  of  saltpetre,  pounded  very  fine,  and  sprinkle  it  all  over 
the  flitches,  rubbing  it  well  into  the  shoulder  parts  especially  ;  they 
then  suffer  them  to  remain  twelve  hours,  after  which  they  should  be 
rubbed  dry,  and  in  the  mean  time  seven  pounds  of  salt  mixed  with 
one  pound  and  a  quarter  of  coarse  brown  sugar  put  into  a  frying- 
pan  and  heated  on  a  clear  fire,  stirring  it  well  that  it  may  all  be  of 
the  same  temperature.  This  mixture,  as  hot  as  the  hand  can  pos- 
sibly bear  it,  may  now  be  rubbed  well  into  the  flitches,  which  are 
then  put  one  upon  the  other  and  laid  in  a  salting-pan  or  other 
contrivance,  in  order  that  the  brine  may  form  and  be  kept  from 
wasting.  The  bacon  must  be  kept  in  this  situation  four  weeks, 
turning  it  and  basting  it  well  with  the  brine  twice  or  thrice  a  week. 
At  the  expiration  of  this  time  take  it  from  the  brine,  hang  it  up 
to  dry,  and  smoke  it,  if  preferred,  which  in  the  absence  of  a  regular 
smokehouse  may  be  done  as  follows: — Hang  up  the  bacon  in  a 
chimney  or  other  orifice,  then  underneath  put  down  a  layer  of  dry  - 
straw,  upon  this  a  layer  of  mixed  shavings,  keeping  out  those  from 
deal  or  fir.  next  a  good  layer  of  sawdust  and  some  juniper-berries, 
or  branches  where  procurable,  and  over  all  a  mantle  of  wet  straw 
or  litter,  which  makes  the  fire  give  out  much  smoke  without  burn- 
ing away  too  rapidly.  This  smoking  must  be  repeated  three  or 
four  times,  or  till  the  bacon  appears  thoroughly  dry,  when  it  may 
be  hung  up  in  the  kitchen,  or  any  dry  place  convenient. 

In  Kent  the  hog  is  swaled  or  singed,  in  preference  to  scalding  and 
scraping  the  skin,  as  this  latter  process,  it  is  considered,  tends  to 
soften  the  rind  and  injure  the  firmness  of  the  flesh.  The  flitches  are 
rubbed  with  dry  salt  and  saltpetre  in  the  proportion  of  one-third  of 
the  latter  to  two  of  the  former,  and  laid  in  a  trough,  and  there  each 
one  sprinkled  over  with  this  mixture.  Here  they  continue  for  three 
weeks  or  a  month,  according  to  their  size,  during  which  time  they 
are  taken  out  once  in  two  or  three  days  and  well  rubbed  with  the 
brine  and  turned. 

They  are  dried  before  a  slow  fire,  and  this  process  occupies  abou4 
the  same  time  that  the  salting  has  done.  When  it  is  completed  the 
flitches  are  either  hung  up  in  a  dry  place,  or  deposited  on  stone  slabs 
until  wanted  for  domestic  use. 


CUBING  BACON.  215 

In  Somersetshire  and  Wiltshire,  the  following  is  the  common  pro- 
cess : — 

When  the  hogs  are  prepared,  the  sides  are  first  laid  in  large 
wooden  troughs  and  sprinkled  over  with  rock  salt,  and  there  left  un- 
moved for  four-and-twenty  hours,  in  order  to  let  all  the  blood  and 
other  superfluous  juices  be  completely  drained  off  from  them. 

After  this  they  are  taken  up  and  thoroughly  wiped,  and  some  fresh 
bay-salt,  previously  heated  in  an  iron  frying-pan,  is  rubbed  into  the 
flesh  until  it  has  absorbed  a  sufficient  quantity.  This  rubbing  is  con- 
tinued for  four  successive  days,  during  which  the  flitches  are  usually 
turned  every  second  day.  Where  the  large  hogs  are  killed  it  be- 
comes necessary  to  keep  the  flitches  in  brine  for  three  weeks,  and 
after  that  interval  to  turn  them  out  and  dry  them  in  the  common 
manner. 

In  the  county  of  Westmoreland,  which  is  celebrated  for  the  flavor 
of  its  hams,  the  following  method  prevails : — First  they  are  tho- 
roughly rubbed,  usually  with  bay-salt  alone,  after  which  some  curers 
advise  that  they  shall  be  closely  covered  up,  while  others  leave  them 
on  a  stone  for  the  purpose  of  draining  off  the  brine.  At  the  expira- 
tion of  five  days  this  friction  is  repeated  with  equal  diligence,  but 
the  bay-salt  is  then  combined  with  somewhat  more  than  an  ounce 
of  "saltpetre  to  each  ham.  They  are  next  suffered  to  lie  about  a 
week  either  in  hogsheads  among  the  brine,  or  on  stone  benches, 
after  which  they  are  hung  up  in  the  chimney  to  dry.  In  this  last 
part  of  the  process  there  is  a  difference  of  practice.  By  some  they 
are  suspended  so  that  they  shall  be  dried  solely  by  the  heat  arising 
from  the  fire  below,  without  being  exposed  at  all  to  the  smoke, 
while  by  others  they  are  hung  up  in  the  midst  of  the  smoke,  whether 
this  arises  from  coals  or  peat. 

In  Yorkshire,  after  the  pig  has  been  killed,  it  is  allowed  to  hang 
twenty-four  hours  previous  to  being  cut  up  ;  one  pound  of  saltpetre 
is  then  rubbed  into  a  twenty-stone  pig,  (of  fourteen  pounds  to  the 
stone,)  and  one  and  a  half  or  two  stones  of  common  salt,  taking 
care  that  it  is  well  rubbed  in ;  it  is  then  put  into  a  tub  kept  for  the 
purpose.  After  having  lain  a  fortnight  it  is  turned  over,  and  a  little 
more  salt  applied — say  half  a  stone;  it  then  remains  a  fortnight 
longer  in  the  pickle-tub ;  whence  it  is  taken  and  hung  up  in  the 
kitchen,  where  it  remains  two  months  to  dry,  but  should  the  winter 
be  far  advanced,  and  dry  weather  set  in,  a  shorter  period  might 
suffice.  After  being  taken  from  the  top  of  the  kitchen,  the  inside  is 
washed  over  with  quicklime  and  water,  to  preserve  it  from  the  fly ; 
it  is  then  removed  into  a  room  not  used  by  the  family,  away  from 
heat,  and  where  it  will  be  kept  perfectly  dry,  and  is  ready  for  use 
at  pleasure.  The  smoking  system  is  rarely  adopted. 

Mr.  Henderson,  in  his  " Treatise  on  Swine"  gives  the  following 
account  of  the  mode  of  curing  bacon  and  hams  in  Scotland :— 


216 


THE    HOG. 


"  In  killing  a  number  of  swine,  what  sides  you  may  have  dressed 
the  first  day,  lay  upon  some  flags  or  boards,  piling  them  across  eacri 
other,  and  giving  each  flitch  a  powdering  of  saltpetre,  and  then  cover- 
ing it  with  salt.  Proceed  in  the  same  manner  with  the  hams  them- 
selves, and  do  not  omit  giving  them  a  little  saltpetre,  as  it  opens  the 
pores  of  the  flesh  to  receive  the  salt,  and  besides,  gives  the  ham  a 
pleasant  flavor,  and  makes  it  more  juicy.  Let  them  lie  in  this  state 
about  a  week,  then  turn  those  on  the  top  undermost, giving  them  afresh 
salting.  After  lying  two  of  three  weeks  longer,  they  may  be  hung 
up  to  dry  in  some  chimney  or  smoke-house.  Or,  if  the  curer  chooses, 
he  may  turn  them  over  again,  without  giving  them  any  more 
salt ;  in  which  state  they  may  lie  for  a  month  or  two,  without  catch- 
ing any  harm,  until  he  has  convenience  for  drying  them.  I  practised 
for  many  years  the  custom  of  carting  my  flitches  and  hams  through 
the  country  to  farm-houses,  and  used  to  hang  them  in  their  chimneys, 
and  other  parts  of  the  house,  to  dry,  some  seasons  to  the  amount  of 
five  hundred  carcasses.  This  plan  I  soon  found  was  attended  by  a 
number  of  inconveniences,  yet  it  is  still  common  in  Dumfriesshire. 

"About  twenty  years  ago,  I  contrived  a  small  smoke-house  of  a 
very  simple  construction.  It  is  about  twelve  feet  square,  and  the 
walls  about  seven  feet  high.  One  of  these  huts  requires  six  joists 
across,  one  close  to  each  wall,  the  other  four  laid  asunder  at  proper 
distances.  To  receive  five  rows  of  flitches,  they  must  be  laid  on 
the  top  of  the  wall.  A  piece  of  wood  strong  enough  to  bear  the 
weight  of  one  flitch  of  bacon,  must  be  fixed  across  the  belly  end  of 
the  flitch  by  two  strings,  as  the  neck  end  must  hang  downwards. 
The  piece  of  wood  must  be  longer  than  the  flitch  is  wide,  so  that 
each  end  may  rest  upon  a  beam.  They  may  be  put  so  near  to  each 
other  as  not  to  touch.  The  width  of  it  will  hold  twenty-four  flitches 
in  a  row,  and  there  will  be  five  rows,  which  will  contain  one  hundred 
and  twenty  flitches.  As  many  hams  may  be  hung  at  the  same  time 
above  the  flitches,  contrived  in  the  best  manner  one  can.  The  lower 
end  of  the  flitches  will  be  within  two  and  a  half  or  three  feet  of  the 
floor,  which  must  be  covered  five  or  six  inches  thick  with  sawdust, 
which  must  be  kindled  at  two  different  sides.  It  will  burn,  but  not 
cause  any  flame  to  injure  the  bacon.  The  door  must  be  kept  close, 
and  the  hut  must  have  a  small  hole  in  the  roof,  so  that  part  of  the 
smoke  may  ascend.  That  lot  of  bacon  and  hams  will  be  ready  to 
pack  up  in  a  hogshead,  to  send  off,  in  eight  or  ten  days,  or  a  little 
longer  if  required,  with  very  little  loss  of  weight.  After  the  bacon 
is  salted  it  may  lie  in  the  salt-house,  as  described,  until  an  order  is 
received. 

"  1  found  the  smoke-house  to  be  a  great  saving,  not  only  in  the 
expense  and  trouble  of  employing  men  to  cart  and  hang  it  through 
the  country,  but  it  did  not  lose  nearly  so  much  weight  by  this  pro- 
cess. It  may  be  remarked,  that  whatever  is  shipped  for  the  London 


CURING  BACON.  2} 7 

market,  or  any  other,  both  bacon  and  hams,  must  be  knocked  hard 
and  packed  into  a  sugar  hogshead,  or  something  similar,  to  hold 
about  ten  hundred  weight.  Bacon  can  only  be  cured  from  the  mid- 
die  of  September  until  the  middle  of  April." 

The  annexed  system  is  the  one  usually  pursued  in  Westphalia : — 

"  Six  pounds  of  rock  salt,  two  pounds  of  powdered  loaf  sugar, 
three  ounces  of  saltpetre,  and  three  gallons  of  spring  or  pure  water, 
are  boiled  together.  This  should  be  skimmed  when  boiling,  and 
when  quite  cold  poured  over  the  meat,  every  part  of  which  must 
be  covered  with  this  brine.  Small  pork  will  be  sufficiently  cured  in 
four  or  five  days  ;  hams,  intended  for  drying,  will  be  cured  in  four 
or  five  weeks,  unless  they  are  very  large.  This  pickle  may  be 
used  again  and  again,  if  it  is  fresh  boiled  up  each  time  with  a  small 
addition  to  the  ingredients.  Before,  however,  putting  the  meat  into 
the  brine,  it  must  be  washed  in  water,  the  blood  pressed  out,  and  the 
whole  wiped  clean. 

"  Pickling-tubs  should  be  larger  at  the  bottom  than  at  the  top, 
by  which  means,  when  well  packed,  the  pork  will  retain  its  place 
until  the  last  layer  is  exhausted.  When  the  pork  is  cool  it  may  be 
cut  up,  the  hams  and  shoulders  reserved  for  bacon,  and  the  re- 
mainder salted.  The  bottom  of  the  tub  or  barrel  should  be  covered 
with  rock  salt,  and  on  it  a  layer  of  meat  placed,  and  so  on  until  the 
tub  is  filled.  The  salt  should  be  used  liberally,  and  the  barrel  filled 
with  strong  brine  boiled  and  skimmed,  and  then  cooled. 

"The  goodness  and  preservation  of  hams  and  shoulders  depends 
on  their  smoking  as  well  as  their  salting.  Owing  to  some  miscon- 
struction of  the  smoke-house,  and  to  the  surface  of  the  meat  not 
oeing  properly  freed  from  saline  matter,  or  other  causes,  it  not  un- 
frequently  happens  that  during  the  process  of  smoking,  the  meat  is 
constantly  rnoist,  and  imbibes  a  pyroligneous  acid  taste  and  smell, 
destructive  of  its  good  qualities. 

"  The  requisites  of  a  smoke-house  are,  that  it  should  be  perfectly 
dry;  not  warmed  by  the  fire  that  makes  the  smoke;  so  far  from 
the  fire,  that  any  vapor  thrown  off  in  the  smoke  may  be  condensed 
before  reaching  the  meat ;  so  close  as  to  exclude  all  flies,  mice,  &c., 
and  yet  capable  of  ventilation  admitting  the  escape  of  smoke. 

"The  Westphalian  hams,  the  most  celebrated  in  Europe,  are 
principally  cured  at  and  exported  from  Hamburg.  The  smoking 
of  these  is  performed  in  extensive  chambers,  in  the  upper  stories  of 
high  buildings.  Some  are  four  or  five  stories  high,  and  the  smoke 
is  conveyed  to  these  rooms  from  fires  in  the  cellar  through  tubes,  on 
which  the  vapor  is  condensed,  and  the  heat  absorbed,  so  that  the 
smoke  is  both  dry  and  cool  when  it  comes  in  contact  with  the  meat. 
They  are  thus  kept  perfectly  dry,  and  acquire  a  color  and  flavor 
unknown  to  those  smoked  in  the  common  metnod. 

"  Hams  after  being  smoked  may  be  kept  any  length  of  time  by 
10 


218  THE  HOG. 

being  packed  in  dry  ashes  or  powdered  charcoal,  cr  by  being  kept 
in  the  smoke-house  if  that  is  secure  against  theft,  or  a  smoke  is 
made  under  them  once  a-week.  When  meat  is  fully  smoked  or 
dried,  it  may  be  kept  hung  up  in  any  dry  room  by  slipping  over  it 
a  cotton  bag,  the  neck  of  which  is  closely  tied  around  the  string  that 
supports  the  meat,  and  thus  excludes  the  bacon-bug,  fly,  &c.  The 
small  part  of  a  ham  or  shoulder  should  always  be  hung  downward 
in  the  process  of  smoking,  or  when  suspended  for  preservation."— 
Albany  Cultivator. 

The  following  method  of  curing  bacon — which  has  been  practised 
in  Virginia  and  Kentucky  by  one  person  with  perfect  success  for  five- 
and- thirty  years,  during  which  time  he  states  that  he  has  cured  on 
the  average  from  six  to  eight  thousand  pounds  every  year,  or,  in  the 
whole,  the  enormous  quantity  of  from  a  hundred  to  a  hundred  and 
twenty-five  tons — will  conclude  what  we  have  to  say  on  this  division 
of  our  subject. 

"  The  hogs  should  be  killed  when  the  weather  is  sufficiently  cold 
to  ensure  that  when  they  are  hung  up,  after  having  been  cleaned, 
they  shall  not  only  become  quite  cold  to  the  touch,  but  feel  hard  and 
stiff.  They  should  be  killed  on  one  day,  and  cut  up  and  salted  on 
the  next.  When  the  weather  is  very  cold  they  should  be  hung  in  a 
cellar  or  somewhere  where  they  are  not  likely  to  become  frozen,  but 
if  there  be  no  danger  of  this,  let  them  hang  in  the  open  air. 

"  The  process  of  cutting  up  is  too  well  known  to  need  description ; 
nothing  further  need  be  said  than  that  the  backbone  or  chine  should 
be  taken  out,  as  also  the  spare-ribs  from  the  shoulders,  and  the 
mouse-pieces  and  short-ribs  or  griskins  from  the  middlings.  No 
acute  angles  should  be  left  to  shoulders  or  hams.  In  salting  up  in 
Virginia,  all  the  meat  except  the  heads,  jowls,  chines,  and  srnallei 
pieces,  is  put  into  powderina-tubs  (water-tight  half- hogsheads).  In 
Kentucky,  large  troughs,  ten  feet  long  and  three  or  four  feet  wide  at 
the  top,  made  of  the  Liriodendron  tulipifera,  or  poplar-tree,  are 
used.  These  are  much  the  most  convenient  for  packing  the  meat 
in,  and  are  easily  caulked  if  they  should  crack  so  as  to  leak.  The 
salting-tray,  or  box  in  which  the  meat  is  to  be  salted,  piece  by  piece, 
and  from  which  each  piece,  as  it  is  salted,  is  to  be  transferred  to  the 
powdering-tub  or  trough,  must  be  placed  just  so  near  the  trough  that 
the  man  standing  between  can  transfer  the  p?ece  from  one  to  the 
other  easily,  and  without  wasting  the  salt  as  they  are  lifted  from  the 
salting-box  into  the  trough.  The  salter  stands  on  the  off-side  of  the 
salting-box.  Salt  the  hams  first,  the  shoulders  next,  and  the  mid- 
dlings last,  which  may  be  piled  up  two  feet  above  the  top  of  th* 
trough  or  tub.  The  joints  will  thus  in  a  short  time  be  immersed 
in  brine. 

"  Measure  into  your  salting-tray  four  measures  of  salt  (a  peck 
measure  will  be  found  most  convenient,)  and  one  measure  of  clean 


CURING    BACON.  219 

dry  sifted  ashes  ;  mix  and  incorporate  them  well.  The  salter  takes 
a  ham  into  the  tray,  rubs  the  skin  with  this  composition  and  the  raw 
hock  end,  turns  it  over,  and  packs  the  composition  of  salt  and  ashes 
on  the  fleshy  side  till  it  is  at  least  three-quarters  of  an  inch  deep 
all  over  it,  and  on  the  interior  lower  part  of  the  ham,  which  is  cov- 
ered with  the  skin,  as  much  as  will  lay  on  it.  The  man  who  stands 
ready  to  transfer  the  pieces  as  they  are  salted  takes  up  the  piece, 
and  deposits  it  carefully,  without  displacing  the  composition,  with 
the  skin  side  down,  in  the  bottom  of  the  trough.  Each  succeeding 
ham  is  thus  deposited  side  by  side,  so  as  to  leave  the  least  possible 
space  unoccupied. 

"  When  the  bottom  is  all  covered,  see  that  every  visible  part  of 
this  layer  of  meat  is  covered  with  the  composition  of  salt  and  ashes. 
Then  begin  another  layer,  every  piece  being  covered  on  the  upper  or 
fleshy  side  three-quarters  of  an  inch  thick  with  the  composition. 
When  your  trough  is  filled  even  full  in  this  way  with  the  joints,  salt 
the  middlings  with  salt  only,  without  the  ashes,  and  pile  them  up  on 
the  joints  so  that  the  liquefied  salt  may  pass  from  them  into  the 
trough.  Heads,  jowls,  backbones,  &<;.,  receive  salt  only,  and  should 
not  be  put  in  the  trough  with  the  large  pieces. 

>;  Much  slighter  salting  will  preserve  them  if  they  are  salted  upon 
loose  boards,  so  that  the  bloody  brine  from  them  can  pass  off.  The 
joints  and  middlings  are  to  remain  in  and  above  the  trough  without 
being  re-handled,  re-salted,  or  disturbed  in  any  way,  till  they  are  to 
be  hung  up  to  be  smoked. 

"  If  the  hogs  weighed  not  more  than  150  Ibs.,  the  joints  need  not 
remain  longer  than  five  weeks  in  the  pickle  ;  if  they  weighed  200  or 
upwards,  six  or  seven  weeks  is  not  too  long.  It  is  better  that  they 
should  stay  in  too  long  rather  than  too  short  a  time. 

"  In  three  weeks,  jowls,  &e.,  may  be  hung  up.  Taking  out  of 
pickle,  and  preparation  for  hanging  up  to  smoke,  is  thus  performed  : 
— Scrape  off  the  undissolved  salt  (and  if  you  had  put  on  as  much  as 
directed,  there  will  be  a  considerable  quantity  on  all  the  pieces  not 
immersed  in  the  brine ;  this  salt  and  the  brine  is  all  saved  ;  the  brine 
boiled  down,  and  the  dry  composition  given  to  stock,  especially  to 
hogs.)  Wash  every  piece  in  lukewarm  water,  and  with  a  rough 
towel  clean  off  the  salt  and  ashes.  Then  put  the  strings  in  to  hang 
up.  Set  the  pieces  up  edgewise,  that  they  may  drain  and  dry. 
Every  piece  is  then  to  be  dipped  into  the  meat-paint,  and  hung  up  to 
smoke.  The  meat-paint  is  made  of  warm,  not  hot,  water  and  very 
fine  ashes  stirred  together  until  they  are  of  the  consistence  of  thick 
paint.  When  they  are  dipped  in  this,  they  receive  a  coating  which 
projects  them  from  the  fly,  prevents  dripping,  and  tends  to  lessen  / 
all  external  injurious  influences.  Han<*  up  the  pieces  while  yet  moist 
with  the  paint,  and  smoke  them  well." 


220 


THE  HOG. 


POISONOUS    PROPERTIES    OF   BRINE. 

It  is  a  fact  worthy  of  notice  that  the  brine  in  which  pork  or  bacon 
has  been  pickled  is  poisonous  to  pigs.  Several  cases  are  on  record  in 
which  these  animals  have  died  in  consequence  of  a  small  quantity  of 
brine  having  been  mingled  with  the  wash,  under  the  mistaken 
impression  that  it  would  answer  the  same  purpose  and  be  equally 
as  beneficial  as  the  admixture  of  a  small  quantity  of  salt. 

IMPORTATIONS  OF  BACON,  HAM,  AND  SALTED  PORK. 

From  a  reference  to  the  accounts  furnished  by  the  Board  of  Trade, 
it  appears  that  there  have  been  imported  during  the  last  three  years, 


1844. 

1845. 

1846. 

36 

RA 

27fiQ 

HAMS       .               .       *       .       .       " 

67S2 

5    AM 

UOCf) 

PORK,  Salted  : 
Of  British  Possessions  .        .        " 
Foreign                                    " 
Fresh         .        .        .  ...,-^,  -,,.,.        " 

2,153 

28,627 
63 

1,517 
38,128 
133 

\  72,519 
133 

.Total  of  Pork        .    ,   .       " 

30,843 

39,878 

72,652 

And  of  these  articles  there  were  entered  for  home  consumption,— 


1844. 

1845. 

1846. 

BACON      .       .   *•,-,*       •       •    cwt& 

36 

54 

2,768 

HAMS         '•"t:<f"-''V.'^v  *'  '*'4  "'  ;  .       " 

3568 

2  602 

8  385 

PORK,  Salted:— 
Of  British  Possessions  .     .^-' 
Foreign                                   " 
Fresh                                         .        " 

248 
1,073 
63 

172 

1,289 
133 

|  7  2,5  J  9 
1?3 

Total  of  Pork        .        .        « 

1,384 

1,594 

72,652 

These  tables  demonstrate  the  enormous  increase  in  the  importa. 
tion  of  these  staple  articles  of  food  which  has  taken  place  sinco.  the 
abolition  of  the  Tariff  of  1842  and  the  substitution  of  the  new  one. 
The  alteration  of  duties  is  as  follows : 


IMPORTATION   OF  BACON  AND   PORK.  221 

In  1842.  New  Tariff. 

*.    d.  s.    d. 

On  Bacon  from  Foreign  Countries 14    Opercwt.      7    0  per  cwt. 

British  Possessions 36"  20" 

Ham  from  Foreign  Countries 14    0     "  70      " 

British  Possessions 36"  20" 

Salted  Pork  from  Foreign  Countries.     80"  00" 

British  Possessions.     20"  00" 

Previous  to  1842  the  duty  on  bacon  and  ham  amounted  to  28s. 
and  7s.  per  cwt.,  and  that  on  pork  to  16s.  and  4s. ;  swine  were  then 
prohibited  ;  but  when,  by  the  Act  5  &  6  Viet.  cap.  47,  they  became 
admissible,  there  were  imported, — 

In  1842.  In  1843.  In  1844.  In  1845.  In  1846. 

415  361  269  1,598  3,443 

Here  again  we  find  the  same  wonderful  increase.  In  1845  seven 
times  the  number  are  imported  that  were  brought  over  in  1844 ;  and 
in  1846  the  import  of  1845  is  doubled.  Yet  there  is  no  diminution 
created  in  the  provision  trade  by  this  extraordinary  increase  in  that 
of  live  animals,  but,  on  the  contrary,  it  too  increases  in  1845,  and  is 
again  doubled  in  1846.  And  the  increase  of  demand  is  proportion- 
ate with  that  of  the  supplies. 

The  accounts  of  one  branch  of  our  imports  will  this  present  year, 
however,  in  all  probability,  show  a  material  defalcation  in  the  amount; 
we  allude  to  those  arising  from  Ireland,  whence  a  large  number  of 
the  pigs  which  come  to  our  markets  are  supplied,  and  where  the  pre- 
sent state  of  dearth  has  caused  numbers  of  these  animals  to  be  de- 
stroyed. This  fact  ought  to  stimulate  our  native  breeders  to  increased 
exertions.  In  from  1820  to  1825  there  was  on  the  average  from 
204,380  to  338,218  cwts.  of  bacon  and  hams  imported  yearly  into 
England  from  the  sister  country.  Since  the  last-named  period  there 
has  been  no  decrease ;  but,  the  trade  between  Ireland  and  Great 
Britain  having  been  placed  on  the  footing  of  a  coasting-trade,  and 
these  articles  having  been  imported  without  specific  duties,  it  is  no* 
so  easy  to  ascertain  .the  precise  amounts  brought  over  ;  they  may 
be,  however,  estimated  at  about  500,000  cwt.  per  annum. 

The  keeping  of  swine  is  fast  becoming  something  more  than  a 
mere  means  of  disposing  of  offal  and  matters  which  would  otherwise 
be  wasted ;  and  we  trust  that  the  value  and  lucrativeness  of  this 
branch  of  rural  economy  will  soon  be  fully  acknowledged,  and  that 
swine  will  be  duly  estimated  among  farmers  and  breeders.  The 
next  step  must  of  necessity  speedily  follow :  men  of  science  will  no 
longer  deem  them  beneath-  their  notice  ;  their  habits,  instincts,  and 
ailments  will  be  properly  studied ;  individuals  as  well  as  the  world 
will  be  benefited ;  and  a  new  and  important  field  of  knowledge 
thrown  open. 


222  THE  HOG. 

Yet  another  source  of  profit  accruing  from  swine,  and  we  close 
this  chapter. 


The  manure  proceeding  from  the  pigsty  has  been  often  much 
undervalued,  and  for  this  reason, — that  the  litter  has  been  considered 
as  forming  the  principal  portion  of  it,  whereas  it  constitutes  the  least 
valuable  part ;  and,  indeed,  where  all  due  attention  is  paid  to  the 
cleanliness  of  the  animals  and  of  their  dwellings,  it  can  scarcely  be 
regarded  as  manure  at  all,  at  least  by  itself. 

It  is  the  urine  and  the  dung  which  are  valuable ;  and  these  are 
now  generally  allowed  to  be  peculiarly  so,  and  to  constitute  no  in- 
considerable items  in  the  profits  arising  from  the  keeping  of  swine. 
These  matters  are,  from  the  very  nature  of  the  food  of  the  animals, 
exceedingly  rich  and  oleaginous,  and  materially  benefit  cold  soils 
and  grass-lands.  But,  as  with  most  other  things  relative  to  swine, 
this  has  also  been  too  much  neglected  ;  the  animals  have  been  suf- 
fered to  wander  about  at  will,  voiding  their  dung  and  urine  in  waste ; 
or,  when  confined,  the  sty  perhaps  furnished  no  means  of  collecting 
and  saving  it.  We  will  venture  to  prophesy  that  the  partial  altera- 
tion of  system  which  is  now  gradually  spreading  will  speedily  lead 
to  amendment  in  this  point  also ;  and  the  dung  from  the  piggery 
will  be  husbanded  with  a  care  little  inferior  to  that  bestowed  on  the 
fold,  stable,  or  cow-house  dung. 

Martin  says :  "  There  is  another  point  relative  to  the  hog,  which  we 
must  not  omit  to  notice.  We  allude  to  the  value  of  the  solid  and 
liquid  manure.  This  has  been,  and  still  is,  too  much  neglected. 
Nevertheless,  this  manure  is  really  of  importance,  being  peculiarly 
adapted  for  cold  soils  and  grass  lands.  It  should  always  be  collected 
as  carefully  as  that  of  the  stable  or  cow-house,  and  husbanded  in 
the  same  way.  Those  who  keep  extensive  piggeries  will  soon  find 
the  advantage  of  this  plan,  which,  besides  the  profit  arising  from 
the  manure  itself,  will  necessitate  the  keeping  of  the  piggery  in  a 
state  of  cleanliness.  A  dirty  sty  or  yard  is  a  disgrace  to  the  owner ; 
it  is  the  source  of  disease,  and  it  involves  the  waste  of  manure  of 
first-rate  quality.  The  cottager  who  keeps  a  pig  or  two  will  find 
the  utility  of  this  manure  in  his  garden,  and,  by  due  attention,  he 
will  prevent  the  litter  or  bedding  of  straw  from  becoming  a  mass 
of  filth ;  thus  in  two  ways  effecting  a  saving." 


MEDICINES  FOR  CUBE  OF  SWINE.  223 

/  I  fife  **£ 


CHAPTER  XV. 

The  Medicines  used  in  combating  the  Maladies  of  Swine. 

THE  medicines  generally  used  in  the  treatment  of  swine  are  nei- 
ther numerous  nor  complicated.  There  are,  doubtless,  many  others, 
besides  those  enumerated  in  the.  following  list,  which  might  be 
employed  with  advantage,  and  which  will,  as  the  diseases  of  these 
domesticated  animals  become  more  studied,  be  discovered  and  made 
use  of. 

The  caution  requisite  in  the  administration  of  all  medicines  has 
been  already  alluded  to  in  Chapter  X.;  force  should  as  seldom  as 
possible  be  had  recourse  to. 

It  must  be  borne  in  mind  that  the  doses  here  given  are  taken  on 
the  average,  and  must  always  be  proportioned  to  the  size,  and  con- 
stitution, and  state  of  health  of  the  animal.  In  all  cases  of  actual 
disease,  the  best  and  most  economical  plan  will  be  to  have  recourse 
to  some  good  veterinary  surgeon  within  reach.  The  life  of  many  a 
valuable  animal  will  thus  be  saved,  for  the  mere  amateur  in  surgery 
is  always  liable  to  blunder  in  the  choice  of  remedies,  as  well  as  in 
the  application  of  them,  and  will  often  create  evils  far  greater  than 
those  he  is  endeavoring  to  cure. 

ANTIMONY. — Seldom  given  by  itself.  In  conjunction  with  sulphur, 
forms  an  efficient  cooling  and  cleansing  medicine  ;  and  with  sulphur 
and  hog's  lard,  or  palm  or  train-oil,  constitutes  the  common  mange- 
ointment. 

ARSENIC. — Useful  in  mange,  and  other  cases  of  diseases  of  the 
skin.  From  one  ounce  to  an  ounce  and  a  half,  dissolved  in  a  gallon 
of  water,  will  form  a  solution  of  sufficient  strength. 

CALOMEL. — A  dangerous  drug,  and  one  better  left  alone.  In 
cases  of  emergency,  however,  it  may  be  given  in  conjunction  with 
an  equal  portion  of  tartarized  antimony.  From  two  to  three  grains 
of  each  will  constitute  an  active  emetic. 

CREOSOTE. — Useful  in  cases  of  virulent  cutaneous  eruptions. 

CROTON  OIL. — A  powerful  purgative,  and  one  that  should  only  be 
had  recourse  to  in  cases  of  obstinate  constipation.  From  one  to 
three  drops  may  be  given 


224  THE  HOG. 

DIGITALIS. — A  valuable  sedative  medicine  in  cases  of  fever. 

Epf-OM  SALTS. — A  Very  useful  and  efficient  purgative,  suitable  to 
most  cases  of  common  occurrence.  From  half  an  ounce  to  an 
ounce  and  a  half  may  be  ordinarily  given. 

GENTIAN. — An  excellent  stomachic ;  every  aperient  draught  should 
contain  a  portion  of  this  or  the  next-mentioned  matter 

GINGER. — Also  a  good  stomachic,  and  a  tonic  as  well.  From 
three  scruples  to  a  drachm  and  a  half  may  be  given  .of  this  and  the 
preceding  drug. 

LINSEED  OIL. — Valuable  as  an  occasional  purgative,  especially 
where  there  is  much  intestinal  inflammation. 

MERCURIAL  OINTMENT. — Used  for  mange  and  scabs,  in  conjunc- 
tion with  the  sulphur  ointment.  The  proportions  are  one  part  of 
the  former  to  eight  parts  of  the  latter. 

NITRE. — An  excellent  cooling  medicine  in  all  cases  where  there 
is  tendency  to  fever.  From  one  to  two  drachms  may  be  given  dis- 
solved in  the  water  the  animal  drinks. 

PALM  OIL. — The  best  emollient  to  form  the  basis  of  all  ointments 
for  cutaneous  eruptions. 

SALT. — A  valuable  adjunct  in  purifying  the  blood,  and  maintain- 
ing the  animals  in  good  condition.  A  small  quantity  should  be  regu- 
larly mingled  with  the  food. 

SULPHUR. — A  good  cooling  medicine,  and  the  best  gentle  aperient 
for  ordinary  use  we  have.  It  also  constitutes  the  chief  ingredient 
in  mange-ointment. 

TARTAR  EMETIC. — Useful  as  an  emetic. 

VINEGAR. — Valuable  in  all  cases  requiring  cooling  fomentations. 

TOBACCO. — A  decoction  of  this  plant  efficacious  and  soothing  in 
cases  of  mange  and  cutaneous  eruptions,  especially  when  mingled 
with  equal  parts  of  digitalis. 

TURPENTINE. — A  destructive  agent  in  cases  of  worms :  it  may 
be  given  to  swin }  without  danger. 


INDEX. 


ABORTION,  treatment  of,  161. 
Abstinence  from  pork,  necessary  in  hot 

climates,  23. 

Acorns,  pigs  thrive  on,  182. 
Age,  great,  of  wild  boars,  48. 
Agricultural  societies,  influence  of,  on 

breeding,  176. 
America,   importation    of  breeds  of 

swine  into,  61 ;  six  species  of  hogs 

in,  58 ;  wild  boars  in,  57. 
Analogy  between  the  Chinese  and  their 

pigs,  64. 

Anatomy  of  swine,  &c.  101, 
Ancients,  boar-hunts  of,  48. 
Anecdotes  of  pigs,  34,  35,  36,  37,  38, 

39. 

Anglo-Saxons,  boar-hunts  of,  50. 
Animal  substances,  feeding  swine  on, 

188. 

Apoplexy  in  pigs,  108. 
Apparatus  for  preparing  pigs'  food, 

200. 

Apples, 'swine  fed  on,  189. 
Ardennes,  wild  boar  of,  52. 
Armor,  hogs  in,  or  Tatous,  15. 
Ashes  given  to  pigs,  197. 
Attachments  of  swine,  39. 
Autumn,  best  time  for  fattening  pigs, 

190. 


B. 


Babiroussa,  the,  14  5  at  Zoological  Gar- 
dens, 14, 

Bacon,  curing,  213  ;  derivation  of  the 
word,  213 ;  importation  of,  220. 

Bakewell,  Mr.,  his  pigs,  80. 

Bavarian  pigs,  68. 

10* 


Beans,  feeding  swine  on,  181, 187. 
Beasts  of  draught,  pigs  used  as,  36, 

37. 
Bedford,  Duke  of,  cut  of  his  Berkshire 

sow,  86. 

Bedfordshire  pigs,  82. 
Beech  mast,  swine  fed  on,  182. 
Dement,  Mr.,  of  Albany,  on  breeding 

pigs,  61. 
Berkshire  pigs,  85. 

sow,  cut  of  a,  86. 

Bladder,  the,  134 ;  inversion  of,  135. 
Bleeding  swine,  134. 
Blood,  hogs',  used  as  holy  water,  65. 
Boar  hunts,  laws  respecting,  48, 49, 50. 

of  the  ancients,  49. 

of  the  Anglo-Saxons,  50. 


Boars,  choice  of,  for  breeding,  150. 

Boar's  Head,  Christmas  dish,  51 ;  pre- 
sented to  the  hangman,  51;  at 
Queen  Margaret's  i  wedding  dinner, 
51. 

Boars,  tamed,  39  ;  technical  terms  for, 
50 ;  wild,  see  "  Wild  Boars." 

Bothnian  pigs,  68. 

Brain  of  the  hog,  107 ;  inflammation 
of,  108. 

Bran,  feeding  pigs  on,  189. 

Breeding,  rules  respecting,  149, 150. 
swine,  how  far  profitable,  170. 


Breeds  improved  by  judicious  crosses, 
153 ;  which  are  the  best,  153. 

Breweries,  pigs  fed  on  refuse  of,  179. 

Brine,  poisonous  properties  of,  220. 

Bristles,  ropes  made  from,74;  use  mada 
of,  34. 

Bronchial  tubes,  122. 

Brushing  pigs,  202. 

Butcher,  profit  of  pigs  to  the,  20& 

(225) 


226 


INDEX. 


C. 


Caesarian  operation  performed  on  a 
sow,  153. 

Cape,  the,  the  phaco-choeres  in,  15. 

Capibara,  the,  15. 

Carrots,  feeding  swiie  on,  180,  181. 

Castrated  animals,  disposed  to  obesity, 
178. 

Castration  of  pigs,  modes  of,  145. 

Catching  pigs,  147. 

Cattle  shows,  benefits  and  abases  of, 
177. 

Census  of  the  increase  of  pigs  by  breed- 
ing, 170. 

Chanting  to  pigs,  203. 

Character,  developing  a  pig's,  108. 

Charles!., reintroduction  of  -wild boars 
by,  51,  87. 

Cheshire  pigs,  83.  -,«-,  <u.  , 

Chestnuts,  swine  fed  on,  182. 

Chest  of  the  pig,  120. 

Chinese  swine,  88,99 ;  liable  to  become 
over  fat,  178. 

Chinese,  the,  and  their  pigs,  analogy 
between,  64. 

Choice  of  boar  and  sow  for  breeding, 
150, : 

Christmas  dish,  the  boar's  bead  a,  51. 

Cinders  given  to  pigs,  189.     ..J^ 

Cleanliness  of  swine,  41,  189. 

Clover,  feeding  pigs  on,  187. 

Cochon  d'Inde.    See  "  Guinea  Pig." 

Co3cum,  the,  128. 

Coleshill  pigs,  179. 

Colic,  129. 

Colon,  the,  128. 

Combing  pigs,  202. 

Copts,  the,  rear  no  pigs,  27. 

Cornish  pigs,  85. 

Crete,  hogs  sacred  in,  23. 

Crops,  number  of  swine  to  be  propor- 
tioned to  the  farmer's,  171. 

Crosses,  judicious,  improve  the  breed, 
153. 

Curing  bacon,  213. 

Cuvier,  Baron,  his  definition  of  "Hog," 
11 ;  on .  the  babiroussa,  14 ;  on 
the  capibara,  15;  on  the  peccary, 
13. 

D. 

Dairy  refuse  for  pigs,  179, 192. 
Dead  pig.  preparing  the,  212. 


Definition,  zoological,  of  the  pig,  IL 

Democrates'  prescription  for  measles, 
143. 

Derbyshire  pigs,  79. 

Derivation  of  term  "  Hog,"  15. 

Desquamation  of  the  skin,  143. 

Diarrhoea,  129. 

Dickens,  Charles,  on  American  pigs, 
59,  60. 

Dieskau,  M.  de,  taming  boars,  40. 

Diseased  valves  of  the  heart,  121. 

Diseases  of  swine,  described,  102;  little 
notice  paid  hitherto  to,  102 ;  medi- 
cines used  for,  140,  223. 

Diseases  of  the  skin,  136. 

Distilleries,  pigs  fed  on  refuse  of,  179 
197. 

Docility  of  swine,  35,  37,  40. 

Drenching  pigs,  148. 

Duodenum,  the,  128. 


E. 


Early  domestication  of  swine  in  Eng- 
land, 31. 

Early  history  of  swine,  30. 
Emperor  of  Austria's  wild  boar  park. 

Empirics,  animals  not  to  be  intrusted 
to,  101. 

England,  breeds  of  swine  in,  77 ;  re- 
cords respecting  keeping  swine  in, 
30. 

,  English  swine  introduced  into  France, 
72. 

Enteritis,  129.       iV. 

Epidemics  among  swine,  123. 

Epilepsy,  110. 

Epitaph  on  a  prize  pig,  178. 

Erysipelas,  gangrenous,  137. 

Extinction  of  wild  boars  in  Great  Bri 
tain,  50. 

F. 

Farrowing,  best  time  for,  156 ;  rules 

respecting,  153. 
Fattening  pigs,  33,  177,  184,  186, 188; 

excess  of,  179. 

Feeding  swine,  33,  176,  177,  188. 
Filthy  habits  of  swine  denied,  41. 
Fleam,  the  U8e  of,  dangerous,  145. 
Food  of  swine,  33,  42 ;  best  kind  for 

fattening,  189. 
Food  of  wild  boars,  47. 


INDEX. 


227 


Forester,  Lord,  his  pigs,  88. 
Forests  of  England,  swine  in,  31. 
Four-in-hand,  swine  driven,  36. 
France,  breeds  of  swine  in,  69  ;  English 

swine  introduced  into,  72 ;  wild  boars 

in,  52. 
Fruits,  feeding  swine  on,  43. 


G. 


Gangrenous  erysipelas,  137. 
Garget  of  the  maw,  120. 
Gauls,  the,  early  breeders  of  swine,  22. 
Germany,  management  of  herds  of 

swine  in,  32  j  mode  of  hunting  hogs, 

52 ;  wild  boars  introduced  from,  into 

England,  51,  87. 
Gestation,  period  of,  164. 
Gifford,  Master  John,  on  hunting,  50. 
Gloucestershire  pigs,  84. 
Grain,  best  for  fattening  pigs,  184, 194; 

how  to  be  given  to  swine,  187. 
Grains,  pigs  fed  on,  179. 
Great  Britain,  extinction  of  wild  boars 

jn,  51 ;  reintroduction  of  boars,  51, 

87. 

Greediness  of  swine,  42,  44. 
Green  meat,  feeding  swine  on,  187. 
Guiana,  the  peccary  abounds  in,  13. 
Guinea  pig,  the,  14;  the  phaco-choe- 

res  in,  15. 
Gullet,  the,  127. 


H. 


Hampshire  pigs,  87. 

Hams,  curing,  215,  217 ;  importation 
of,  220  •,  Westphalian,  52,  217. 

Hangman,  boar's  head  presented  to 
the,  52. 

Heart  of  the  pig,  122;  diseased  valves 
of,  122. 

Hedgehog,  the,  15. 

Heliogabalus,  boars  trained  by,  37. 

Henderson,  description  of  his  sties, 
199 ;  his  method  of  curing  bacon, 

..  215. 

Herds  of  swine,  how  managed  in  Ger- 
many, '32,  33. 

Herefordshire  pigs,  84. 

Hernia  in  swine,  135. 

History  of  Toby,  a  pet  pig,  40. 

Hogape,  15. 

Hog  deer.     See  "Babirouss.*.'' 

• derivation  of  term,  21 


Hog  in  armor,  15. 

iron,  15. 

puddings  made  by  ancient  Gauls, 

22. 

sea,  15. 

— —  with  two  horns,  14 ;  four  horns, 
15, 

Hog's  blood  used  as  holy  water,  65. 

dung  as  manure,  222. 

Hogs,  anatomy  of,  100,&c.-,  attachments 
of,  40 ;  best  food  for  fattening,  189  ; 
breeding,  149;  catching  and  holding, 
for  operations,  147;  cause  of  their  roll- 
ing in  the  mud,  42 ;  characteristics  of, 
35,  <fec. ;  chief  source  of  profit  in  Ire- 
land, 33;  cleanliness  of,  42,  189 ;  col- 
lected by  the  winding  of  a  horn,  32: 
despised  by  Egyptians,  28;  diseases 
of,  108,  149  ;  drenching,  148 ;  driven 
four-in  hand,  36  ;  early  history  of, 
30  ;  exquisite  sense  of  smell  of,  35, 
47,  105  ;  fattening,  173—197  ;  func- 
tions fulfilled  in  forest  by,  33;  greatly 
esteemed  by  Romans,  22;  greediness 
of,  42 — 44;  how  far  the  breeding  of, 
is  profitable,  169;  how  kept  in  Mexi- 
co, 202;  how  pulse  to  be  taken,  121; 
hunt  for  truffles,  106 ;  importation 
of,  99;  in  English  forests,  31;  intrac- 
tability of,  refuted,  32,  35—38,  108; 
introduction  of  English,  into  France, 
72;  killing,  211;  laws  on  price  and 
quality  of,  31;  learned,  38 ;  lucra- 
tiveness  of  keeping,  170,  206  ;  mad, 
114 ;  masting,  31 ;  medicines  used 
for,  223  ;  methods  of  shooting,  in 
Germany,  52  ;  mode  of  keeping, 
in  Germany,  32  ;  mode  of  keeping, 
in  Mexico,  202 ;  number  of,  to  be 
proportioned  to  the  farmer's  crops, 
172 ;  old  English,  77 ;  operations 
on,  144,  149 ;  pasturing,  187  ;  pro- 
fit of,  to  the  butcher,  206;  racing, 
38  ;  ringing,  148  ;  roasted,  offered  to 
deities,  63  ;  skeleton  of,  103 ;  skin 
of,  136  ;  skull  of,  104  ;  soiling,  187  ; 
sties  for,  197  :  sucking,  166  ;  table 
of  increase  of,  by  breeding,  170  ; 
teeth  of,  106  ;  training  of,  35,  &c.; 
used  as  beasts  of  draught,  74  ;  used 
for  ploughing,  37 ;  usefulness  of,  33  j 
very  nice  in  their  food,  43  ;  warmth 
required  by,  198;  weaning,  168;  wea- 
ther indicated  by,  42. 

Hog,  the,  In  Africa,  66  ;  Alderney,  73  j 


228 


INDEX. 


America,  58  —  62  ;  Arabia,  66  ;  Asia, 
64  ;  Ceylon,  65  ;  Channel  Islands, 
72  ;  China,  64  ;  Columbia,  63  :  Eng- 
land, 77—89  ;  Falkland  Islands,  63; 
Flanders,  72  ;  France,  69  ;  Germany, 
67  ;  Guernsey,  72  ;  Hebrides,  73  : 
Hindostan,  65;  Hungary,  68;  Japan,' 
64;  Jersey,  58;  Indiana,  61;  Ireland, 
89;  Isle  of  Man,  73;  Italy,  67:  Malta, 
66;  Netherlands,  72;  New  Holland, 
63  ;  Orkneys,  74  ;  Poland,  69  ;  Rus- 
sia, 69;  Scotland,  75;  Serk,  73;  Shet- 
land Islands,  73;  South  Sea  Islands, 
63  ;  Sweden,  67  ;  Turkey,  65. 

Horns  Farm,  piggery  at  the,  200. 

Homer,  his  description  of  a  boar  hunt, 
48. 

Homer's  swine-herd,  30. 

Horn,  swine  collected  by  the  sound  of 
a,  32. 

Howel  Dha,  laws  of,  31,  50. 

Hunting  wild  boars,  49,  50,  51,  53,  56. 

Hunt,  swine  trained  to,  35. 


Java,  the  babiroussa  found  in,  14. 

Jejunum,  the,  128. 

Jews,  forbidden  to  eat  pork,  23.  . 

Ileum,  the,  128. 

Importation  of  bacon,  ham,  and  salted 

pork,  220. 

Importation  of  swine,  99,  220. 
India,  wild  boar  hunt  in,  54. 
Indian  corn,  feeding  swine  on,  187. 
Indian  hog,  15,  50. 
Inflammation  of  the  lungs,  122. 
Intestines,  the,  127. 

-  -  ,  worms  in,  133. 
Intractability  of  swine  refuted,  35. 
Inversion  of  the  bladder,  135. 
Ireland,  pigs  chief  source  of  profit  in, 

33. 
Irish  pig,  the,  89. 

-  ,  lately  improved,  90. 

-  pork,  90. 
Iron  hog,  the,  15. 

Italy,  swine  employed  in  hunting  for 

truffles  in,  43. 
Jungles,  hogs  in  the,  54. 


Killing  pigs,  211. 


Lake,  Colonel,  his  account  of  the  pigs 

in  Guernsey,  73. 
Lancet,  use  of  the,  146. 
Larynx,  116. 

Lawly,  Sir  F.,  Ms  pigs,  83. 
Laws,  English,  on  price  and  quality  of 

swine,  31. 

Laws  of  Shetland  relative  to  pigs,  73. 
Learned  pigs,  38. 
Leicester  pigs,  80. 
Leprosy,  pigs  subject  to,  138. 
Leprous  pigs,  wholesomeness  of  flesh 

of,  questioned,  140. 
Lice,  pigs  infested  with,  137. 
Life  of  pigs  in  Germany,  32. 
Lincolnshire  pigs,  79. 
Linnaeus  on    swine's  vegetable  diet, 

43. 

Litters,  how  many  to  be  suffered,  154. 
Liver,  the,  130. 
Lungs  of  the  swine,  122  ;  inflammation 

of,  122. 


M 


Mad  pigs,  109. 

Maimonides  on  prohibition  of  swine's 

flesh,  23. 

Maladies  of  swine.    See  "  Diseases." 
,  medicines  used  for, 


223. 

Malays,  the,  use  the  fat  of  the  babi- 
roussa, 14. 

Mange,  swine  afflicted  with,  141. 

Manure,  pig's  dung  as,  222. 

Masting  swine,  31. 

Matches  run  by  pigs,  37,  38. 

Maw,  garget  of  the,  130. 

Measles  in  swine,  142. 

Medicines  used  for  maladies  of  swine, 
223. 

Mexican  hog,  13,  62,  202. 

Mexico,  how  pigs  are  kept  in,  202. 

Milk,  swine  fed  on,  179. 

Mohammed's  prohibition  of  swine'i 
flesh,  24. 

Moldavian  pigs,  68. 

Moluccas,  the  babiroussa  found  in,  14, 

Monstrosities  farrowed  by  swine,  165. 

Morocco,  wild  boars  in,  56. 

Moses  gave  laws  respecting  swine,  22. 

Muscles  of  the  hog,  106. 


INDEX. 


229 


N 


Nasal  catarrh,  116. 
Norfolk  pigs,  82. 
Ncrthampt  Mishire  pigs,  83. 
Nutritious  food  for  swine,  191. 
Nuts  not  to  be  given  to  pigs,  184. 

0. 

Ogilvy,  W.,  Esq.,  cut  of  a  Chinese  sow 
sent  to,  88. 

Old  English  hog,  cut  of,  77. 

Operations  on  swine,  144. 

Os  hyoides,  the,  118. 

Oxford,  boar's  head  at  Queen's  Col- 
lege, 51. 


P. 


Palsy,  111. 

Panther  torn  to  pieces,  by  hogs,  62. 

Paraguay,  the  peccary  abundant  in,  13. 

Paralysis,  111. 

Paris  menagerie,  babiroussa  at,  14. 

Parturition,  162. 

.  cases  of  difficult,  163. 

Pasturing  swine,  187. 

Peas,  feeding  pigs  on,  186. 

Peccary,  the  13. 

Peritoneum,  133. 

Peritonitis,  133. 

Pet  pig,  a,  40. 

Phaco-choeres,  the,  15. 

Pharynx,  the,  118. 

Phrenitis,  109. 

Pickling  pork,  212. 

Pig.     See  "  Hog." 

Pig-doctors,  rough  practice  of,  102, 103. 

Piggeries,  proper  construction  of,  197. 

Piggery,  Prince  Albert's,  at  the  Home 

Farm,  200. 
Pig-killing,  211. 
Pig,  preparing  the  dead,  212. 
Pigs,  roasted,  offered  to  deities,  63,  64. 

,  sucking,  206. 

"  Pigs  see  the  wind,"  42. 

Pig-sties,  proper  construction  of,  197. 

Pliny  alludes  to  the  babiroussa,  14. 

Pleuro-Pneumonia,  123. 

Ploughing,  swine  used  for,  37. 

Poisonous  properties  of  brine,  220. 

Polish  pigs,  67. 

Porculatio,  22. 

Porous  Trojauus,  the,  22 


Pork,  abstinence  from,  in  hot  climates, 
23  ;  importation  of,  220 ;  increased 
demand  for,  208  ;  pickling,  212. 

Potatoes,  staple  food  for  pigs,  180, 181. 

Practitioners,  well  qualified,  should 
be  consulted,  102. 

Pregnancy,  treatment  of  sows  during, 
160. 

Price  of  swine,  English  laws  respect- 
ing, 31. 

Prize  pigs,  177  ;  epitaph,  on  a,  178. 

Prussia,  pigs  in,  67. 

Pulsations  in  a  state  of  health,  121. 

Pulse,  how  to  be  tSken,  121. 

Pumpkins,  swine  fed  on,  183. 


Quinsy,  the,  118. 


Q. 


R. 


Rabies  in  swine.  112. 
Reasoning  powers  of  pigs,  37,  38. 
Rfictum,  protrusion  of  the,  135. 
Refuse  of  breweries  and  distilleries, 

hogs  fed  on,  179,  192. 
Residue  of  starch  manufactories,  food 

for  swine,  180,  192. 
Rice,  fattening  swine  with,  187. 
Ringing  pigs,  148. 

Roasted  pigs  offered  to  deities,  63,  64. 
Rolling  in  the  mud  of  pigs,  explained, 

42. 
Romans,  breeding  swine  a  study  among 

the,  22. 

Romans,  the  hog  esteemed  by,  22. 
Rome,  slaughter-house  at,  211. 
Roots,  feeding  pigs  on,  180. 
Ropes  made  from  bristles,  74. 
Rotundity  of  the  Chinese  and  their 

pigs,  64. 

Royal  piggery  at  Windsor,  200, 
Rupture  of  the  spleen,  132. 
Russia,  wild  boars  in,  54. 


S. 


Sagacity  of  swine,  34,  39. 
Salted  pork,  importation  of,  220 
Sausages,    pork,    made    by    ancient 

Gauls,  22. 

"  Schwein-General,  the,  32. 
Scotland,  aboriginal  breeds  of  swine 

in,  75. 


230 


INDEX. 


Sea-hog,  the,  15. 

Sense  of  smell.    See  «  Smell." 

Sharon  Turner  on  swine,  30. 

Shropshire  pigs,  83. 

Skin,  diseases  of,  136. 

Skull  of  the  pig,  104. 

Slut,  training  of  a  sow  called,  35. 

Slaughter  house  at  Rome,  211. 

Smell,  exquisite,  of  the  hog,  35,  42, 
45,  48,  105. 

Smokehouse,  for  curing  bacon,  216. 

Snout  of  the  pig,  104 

Snuffles,  the,  116. 

Social  pigs,  40.        * 

Soiling  swine,  187. 

Sow,  a  Berkshire,  86 ;  best  time  for 
farrowing,  160 ;  choice. of,  for  breed- 
ing, 150 ;  devouring  her  young  ac- 
counted for,  42 ;  English  on  the 
quality  and  price  of,  31 ;  fertility  of 
159  ;  pregnancy  of,  160 ;  rules  re- 
specting farrowing,  160  ,  trained  to 
hunt,  35. 

Spain,  wild  boars  in,  54. 

Spaying  of  sows,  145,  146. 

Spinal  cord,  disease  of,  109. 

Spleen,  the,  131;  absorption  of,  131; 
rupture  of,  131. 

Splenitis,  131. 

Sporting  pig,  35. 

Starch  manufactories,  residue  of,  food 
for  swine,  192. 

Stomach,  the,  127. 

Strangles,  119. 

Sty,  how  to  be  constructed,  197. 

Sucking  pigs,  206 ;  how  to  be  fed,  206 ; 
when  to  be  killed,  207. 

Suckling,  treatment  of  sows  while, 
166 ;  the  young  while,  166. 

Suffolk  pigs,  81. 

Sumatra,  the  babiroussa  found  in,  14. 

Sus,  varieties  included  under  the  name 
of,  11,  12. 

Sussex  pigs,  87. 

Sweden,  wild  boars  in,  54. 

Swine.     See  "  Hog." 

Swineherds,  outcasts  from  society,  29 ; 
three  powerful,  in  Great  Britain,  29 ; 
in  Germany,  32. 

Swineherd,  the,  of  Ulysses,  30. 


T. 


Talented  pigs,  37,  38. 
Taming  wild  boars,  40,  57. 


Teachableness  of  swine,  35,  39,  40. 

Technical  terms  for  the  boar,  50. 

Teeth  of  the  hog,  106. 

Tetanus,  112;  a  consequence  of  ca* 
tration,  146. 

Thorax,  the,  120. 

Thornton,  Col.,  account  of  a  sow  be- 
longing to,  36. 

Toby,  a  pet  pig,  account  of,  40. 

Toomer,  Messrs.,  a  sow  trained  by,  35. 

Tractability  of  swine,  35,  39. 

Training  swine,  35,  36,  38. 

Trollope,  Mrs.,  on  swine  in  America,60. 

Trough,  the,  how  to  be  kept,  199  ;  de- 
scription of,  199,  200. 

Truffles,  hunted  for  by  pigs,  45.  106. 

Turnips,  not  beneficial  to  pigs,  180, 
199. 

Twety,  William,  on  hunting,  51. 


U. 


Ulysses  and  his  swineherd,  30 ;  boar- 
hunt  of,  49. 
Usefulness  of  swine,  34. 


V. 


Valves  of  the  heart,  diseased,  121. 

Varro  on  swine's  flesh,  22  ;  distinctive 
marks  of  a  good  boar,  151. 

Vegetable  diet  of  swine,  very  select, 
43  ;  feeding  pigs  on,  180. 

Ventilation  required  in  piggeries,  108. 

Vesical  calculi,  134. 

Veterinary  surgeons  should  not  be  dis- 
pensed with,  102. 

W. 

Wallachian  pigs,  68. 
Warmth  required  by  swine,  198. 
Wart-hog,  the,  16. 
Wash,  pigs  fed  on,  179. 
Washing  swine,  202. 
Water-hog,  the,  15. 

Weather  indicated  by  hogs,  42. 
Western,  Lord,  his  Essex  pig,  80. 
Westphalian  hams,  52 ;  how  cured,  217 j 

pigs,  68. 

Whey,  hogs  fed  on,  179. 
Wild  boar,  cut  of  a,  46  ;  hunting,  48 : 

49,  50 ;  of  Ardennes,  52  ;  park  of 

Emperor  of  Austria,  53. 


INDEX. 


231 


Wild  boar  exempt  from  leprosy,  140  ; 
extinction  of,  in  Great  Britain,  48, 
87  ;  the  parent  stock  of  our  domes- 
ticated breeds,  46  ;  prolific  in  Mo- 
rocco, 56  ;  remtroduction  into  Eng- 
land, 48;  small  number  of  litters, 
48  :  tamed,  40,  57  :  in  America,  57; 
in  France,  52 ;  in  Germany,  52,  53 ; 
in  India,  54;  in  Morocco,  56;  in 
Sweden,  54. 

WUey,  Mr.  Samuel,  Ms  pigs,  78. 


William,  IV.,  King,  his  Suffolk  bow, 

81. 

"Wiltshire  pigs,  84. 
Worms  in  the  intestines,  133. 

Y. 

Yorkshire  breed  of  swine,  78. 

Z. 

Zoological  definition  of  the  pig,  11, 


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